Kategoria: Numerot

computer games, remediation, video games, Wild West

Tero Heikkinen
tero.heikkinen [a] uniarts.fi
Project planner
University of Arts Helsinki

Markku Reunanen
markku.reunanen [a] iki.fi
Lecturer
Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture

Viittaaminen / How to cite: Heikkinen, Tero, and Markku Reunanen. 2015. ”Once Upon a Time on the Screen – Wild West in Computer and Video Games”. WiderScreen 18 (1-2). http://widerscreen.fi/numerot/2015-1-2/upon-time-screen-wild-west-computer-video-games/

Printable version (PDF)

The Western theme in computer and video games remains a little studied topic, despite the competitive nature and visibility of Western-themed entertainment, rodeo, fairground games and the game-like qualities of popularized Western stories. On the one hand the Western appears as a game genre in itself, with activities ranging from pistol shooting to horseback riding, but on the other hand it is a broader audiovisual thematic that can be pasted onto diverse kinds of games. Western-themed arcade games first appeared in the 1970s and, since then, the Wild West has been represented numerous times in video and computer games. The main focus in this article is to examine how Western themes were utilized and replicated in video games and how the reduction of these themes were often played to the extreme – in other words, how the West was remediated across different media.

Introduction

In this article, we examine Western themes in computer and video games^[i]: What characterizes a Western video game? How was this genre born and how has it evolved since then, especially during its formative phases in the 1970s and 1980s? We address these questions by examining how the well-known Western imagery was reinterpreted in the face of the growing capabilities of digital platforms, and the increasing scope of video game productions. We also discuss whether a broad thematic such as the Western can even be considered a distinct video game genre by a means other than as an audio-visual overlay.

Our view of Western video games arises from a media theoretical standpoint. We use the concept of remediation (Bolter and Grusin 2000) as a starting point to bring into focus the historical coming to being of the Western in the video game medium. The concept of remediation is well applicable here, as we are dealing with multiple transformations from older forms of media into the digital domain. Films are likely to be the most important source for Western video game visuals and narratives, and cinema has served as our main frame of reference in understanding what constitutes a Western in the first place. In light of the theory of remediation, the production of Western films is a complex webwork of studio practices, with Western literature as an important precedent: many films are in turn based on books and short stories. Just as the transfer from literature to film needs to repurpose the source material, the reworking of Western themes to the video game medium required a reinvention peculiar to that environment. We examine video games for their own take on the Western themes, observing the presence and absence of common topics seen in films.

The Western film itself has been reinvented in various ways throughout the 20th century. The earliest Hollywood productions can be considered classical Westerns, as film critics and theorists recognize that a major change took place around the time of the Second World War, with films like Stagecoach (1939) indicating a “Western renaissance” (Schatz 2003). To André Bazin, the emerging themes in what he calls the “superwestern” – High Noon (1952) and Shane (1953) cited as exemplars – could be traced to the war, introducing social, moral but also erotic themes not often present in the earlier, more adventure-oriented films (Bazin 1971, 149–152). Philip French (1977, 13), in Western: Aspects of a Movie Genre, considers the post-war Westerns “varied, complex, and self-conscious”, whereas most pre-war Westerns extolled the virtues of the frontier expansion uncritically. The more starkly revisionist Western coincided with counterculture, the Vietnam War and the critique of US policies (Arthur 2003). The European Western, especially the Italian “spaghetti” Westerns by Sergio Leone introduced new visual and aural styles to the genre (Frayling 1981). A further extension to the development of the genre has been suggested by Skerry (2009), who calls the later developments post-revisionist and apocalyptic. Films like Dances with Wolves (1990) and Unforgiven (1992) would not only revise the classical view but incorporate a self-conscious look back at the entire evolution of the Western genre that was now available for hindsight (ibid.).

To summarize the above discussion, the Wild West is a geographical-historical frame providing a “cultural, economical and ideological purpose” (Cooke, Mules and Baker 2014) that drives the motives in a Western-themed production. The frontier setting in fiction can be considered an alternative space for different norms, especially notions about justified violence (Falconer 2014). Although the Western film is an apparent movie genre, some refuse to see genres as having well-defined boundaries and essential features, as Western motifs can be translated to other settings (Wood 1986, 62; see also McGee 2007, xiii–xviii). In this sense, the West is a more abstract setting that brings to the fore the role of the individuals within broader power-conflicts in a certain way, regardless of the actual historical and locational cues shown. For example, French (2005) discusses the “post-western” films that were made in the 1960s and 1970s, citing Hud (1963), Junior Bonner (1972) and Coogan’s Bluff (1968), all of which were set in contemporary times, yet made allusions to the (disappearing) past.

Video game histories (Kent 2001; Donovan 2011) make little note of the Western theme, or underestimate the number of releases (Saarikoski 2004). Past research on video games has, for the most part, focused on a few Western games as examples that support a more generic argument. Among the most prominent cases is the otherwise unremarkable Custer’s Revenge (1982) that has become a symbol of sexual violence in games (for example Herz 1997, 68–69; Dickerman, Christensen and Kerl-McClain 2008; Kangasvuo and Meriläinen 2009). Recently, Western in video games has been used to examine the notion of a video game genre, asking what consequences a Western scenario has for first person shooter (FPS) gameplay (Clearwater 2011). Buel (2013) has used the Western to examine video games’ ties to cinema. To Buel, Western video games introduce play structures that correspond and counteract with the filmic conventions of the frontier struggle, paralleling the civilization and wilderness with the ordered cut-scene and an open world gameplay (2013). Yet, with such a wide spectrum of approaches toward the Western film and an inclusive definition of what constitutes a Western, it is meaningful to ask what Western video games are like, and whether they form a corpus comparable to Western cinema.

In this study, we examine a number of video games throughout the period ranging from the 1970s to today, building a timeline of game releases. The list comprises 383 titles, of which 315 are computer and video games (see Appendix). Most of them have been published commercially. The games originate from all over the world – most notably the US, UK, and Japan – so they also provide for comparisons between national differences, if any. The timeline was augmented with a small number of pinball^[ii], target shooting and reaction cabinets in order to contextualize the development of digital games.

The most important primary Web resources for building up the timeline were the Internet Movie Database, Lemon, MobyGames, The International Arcade Museum, World of Spectrum, and Wikipedia. Initially, the search process started with evident keywords, such as “cowboy”, “revolver” and “West”, and proceeded when new related keywords popped up in the discoveries. When analyzing individual titles, we played them when realistically possible, otherwise falling back to video captures, reviews and screenshots. Finally, reoccurring observations concerning Western-themed representations, narratives and game mechanics were grouped together in order to assess their most common characteristics.

Here we have confined ourselves to video games that deliver an impression of a Western setting, whether ostentatiously historical or referring to a more constructed, fictional American frontier. Our emphasis is on the emergence and expansion of the video game medium in the 1970s and the 1980s. The study was preceded by an extensive viewing of Western movies, with the intent to sensitize us to the presence of stereotypical Western representations and plot devices in video games.

The Birth of the Western Video Game

Wild West shows, frontier theatre, and dime novels already coexisted with the actual frontier, feeding romance-hungry audiences in the East and in Europe. These supplied later cinema, television and comic books with ready-made representations and apocrypha of the West and its heroes. (Hall 2001.) In the days of the early cinema, Western films were seen as cheap entertainment, but by the 1940s a number of works had proven their worth as A-grade movies, ushering in a Western renaissance (Schatz 2003). By the 1950s, Western shows in the United States had reached rapidly expanding television audiences.

Western themes were codified, ubiquitous, and well-known by the time electronic entertainment hit the market. Even the earliest novelty games introduced horse racing, hunting and gunfights. (Kent 2001,10.) In part, the mechanical arcade games also continued a tradition already present in the old West: roulette, wheel of fortune, and the “one-armed bandit” all involved mechanisms of sorts. Among war, sports, and exotic themes, the West provided a convenient setting for later arcade game cabinets. Luck-based games relate to the fickle fortunes at the settler trails, saloon games, and the gold fields, while shooting games and rodeo machines are more rooted in the skills supposedly required at the frontier. Before video games, the simple mechanical and early electronic games could not directly replicate film and book narratives, but rather relied on the popularity of the theme and provided action experiences reminiscent of those seen on the screen.

Video games were preceded by Western-themed pinball machines and various electromechanical target and reaction games that provided Western thrills in an amusement arcade format. Especially pinball can be considered as one major precedent for arcade video games (DeLeon 2014). Target shooting games might only have had a token silhouette of a cowboy as a reference, whereas both Mr. Top Gun and Mr. Quick Draw from 1961 introduced a life-size animatronic Western bandit. A browsing through of themes at the Internet Pinball Database shows that cabinets could be adorned with cartoon casino pin-ups of cowgirls or female Indian^[iii] chiefs, but also more wholesome rodeo, cattle riding, and campsite scenes. The imagery in pinball machines is one source for associated images in video game cabinets and packaging rather than for game mechanics, as the Western theme does not seem to have impacted the pinball gameplay in markedly visible ways.

Arcade spaces, where the early commercial video games were played, were a direct descendant of the pinball and mechanical arcade. The 1970s games can be considered as hybrids of video and mechanical elements, which provided a formula for the digital video games (Figure 1). The transition to video format was not an abrupt change, as some target shooting games included a contained box with complex lighting and display effects, which from today’s perspective already resembles a video screen. A true Western video game, Gun Fight (Taito, 1975), positioned two gunfighters against each other, with a wagon and cacti between as cover. The two-player screen composition, complete with ricocheting bullets, suggests the game is an extension of Atari’s Pong (1972). Yet, there seems to also be a direct precedent, as Sega had already published its own mechanical Gun Fight with a highly similar concept in 1970. The limited ammunition and relatively elaborate “death scene” already suggest a thought-out Western game mechanic. Various “fast-draw” type electronic games also allowed two players to compete, the electronics serving as an unbiased arbiter.

As video game consoles and home computers began to proliferate, interactive electronic Western entertainment entered homes as well. Target shooting was brought to television screens with the second generation of Pong machines, albeit usually without a specific Western theme. Already Ralph H. Baer’s pioneering Brown Box prototype from 1968 – later developed into Magnavox Odyssey – featured a Winchester-like rifle for target shooting (Baer 2005, 55). Coleco’s Telstar line of TV games from 1977, such as the Ranger and Arcade variants, featured quick draw games and light gun revolvers in the Western style (ibid., 142). The earliest home computer games were mostly imitations of earlier arcade games, especially the Gun Fight duel format was indiscriminately copied as small company knock-offs and type-in listings in hobbyist magazines and computer game books.

Early Western video games owed much to their mechanical predecessors, as both the game content and the pictorial embellishments were part of a continued tradition. Physical machines were remediated for the new computer chip and video screen based media, whereas arcade cabinets and video game box covers featured similar film-influenced imagery. Crude two-color displays required game designers to condense the Western thematic to an unprecedented minimum. As video game platforms grew in complexity and capacity during the 1980s, it became possible to offer more advanced themes than mere shooting. The variety of Western games began to expand, and the game mechanics settle into subgenres of their own.

A Genre and Its Typology

The discussion on genre is well-developed in cinema studies, leading to an understanding that a genre is not simply a means of categorization for a particular medium but a system of audience expectations, recognition, and understanding (Neale, 1990). In video games studies, there has been a certain reluctance to compare the video game to earlier media, aligning game genres along the ludological rather than narrative or thematic axis (Clearwater 2011). Apperley (2006) is particularly critical of seeing genre as a simple remediation of visual representations from other media, suggesting a move toward an understanding of genre based on differences of interactivity. This would mean privileging player activity as the defining aspect of a genre, whereas the theme or milieu might even be seen as superficial and uninteresting for analysis. Setting aside the debate on the importance of narrative and gameplay, more in line with the earlier genre theorists Clearwater calls for an understanding of a genre as a conceptual tool for positioning a set of works in a broader social context and industrial production. (Clearwater 2011.) Furthermore, in the age of increasingly online video game commerce, a “genre” can also be considered a tag or a keyword with direct economic consequences, as customers search among a multitude of similar products to find games of their liking (Kemppainen 2012).

A Western game can usually be recognized through the chosen esthetic and standard paraphernalia (Figure 2). Therefore, we could also claim that we are talking about a general theme instead of an actual video game genre, as in many cases the only similarity can be found on the Western icing that has been poured over a set of otherwise unrelated titles. On the other hand, the Wild West setting does imply a set of mechanics that clearly favor certain types of games and, in general, tone the outcome. For example, gunfights, outlaws, and horseback riding are so internalized and productized that it is hard to imagine a Wild West themed game that would not use at least one of them as their building block. To conclude the genre discussion here, we propose that Western games could be called a thematic genre, orthogonal to and overlapping with gameplay-based genres (cf. Junnila 2007, 35).

In spite of the controversial nature of the concept, we have chosen to examine the Western game as a genre of its own to highlight its obvious debt to its well-established predecessors in other media. It should also be noted that remediation is not simply a process of filtering down of other media representations, as remediation acknowledges the importance of building the new forms from the old, leaving traces of that construction on the outcome (Rajewsky 2005). With the lens afforded by remediation, we seek to include both thematic and gameplay aspects as equally important for the formation of video games. In the following, we will examine various game types^[iv] that clearly connect to the Western thematic.

Two of the oldest types of Western games are target shooting and duel. “Target shooting” refers to reaction and accuracy games, where you simply try to hit a target, not an uncommon scene in Western films either. The first wave of digital target games was presented at arcades, most notably Atari’s Outlaw (1976). Home computer versions followed in the 1980s, even though they were limited in their means, most often lacking a physical gun, save a couple of exceptions, such as the French West Phaser (1989) and British Gunslinger (1990) that both came bundled with a light gun. The popularity of target shooters faded after the 1980s, but some occasional titles have been released after that, too. The more recent examples utilize relevant new inventions such as the motion-tracking Wiimote, or a touch screen commonly found on mobile devices.

“Duel” games usually consist of two figures trying to take each other down with revolvers – obviously a remediation of the countless colorful duel scenes seen in movies. As of now, it seems that the first digital duel is Taito’s aforementioned Gun Fight (also known as Western Gun) from 1975. The game was clearly influential and inspired a wagonload of successors, such as Atari’s Outlaw (1979) for the VCS/2600, plus several clones on home computers. Quite interestingly, there is a considerable amount of British duels for the ZX Spectrum line of computers. One clear explanation for such popularity is their simple technical implementation: a two-player game does not require artificial intelligence, and moving two characters plus a few bullets onscreen is within the reach of any moderately seasoned programmer.

Yet another type of Western action is the numerous shoot ’em ups that, again, owe a lot to the gunfights seen in movies. Among the earliest representatives of these games is Nintendo’s arcade cabinet Sheriff (1979) where a lone lawman shoots bandits, not unlike Taito’s classic Space Invaders (1978). 8-bit home computers had their share of shoot ’em ups: High Noon (1984) for the Commodore 64 is among the better known, together with Ultimate’s isometric Gunfright (1986) and Outlaws (1985), which added another cliché, horseback riding, to the mix. Technical development and trends can be clearly observed in shooters. TAD Corporation’s semi-3D Cabal (1988) was quickly followed by the similar Blood Bros. (1990) where modern soldiers were replaced by cowboys and Indians. First person shooters (FPS), initially popularized in the early 1990s, got a Western-themed icing in Brooklyn Multimedia’s Westworld 2000 (1996) – a belated tie-in with the 1973 sci-fi movie Westworld. The Red Dead (2004–) and Call of Juarez (2006–) series took Western FPSs to game consoles, and added movie-inspired role-playing elements to the mix.

The US Civil War (1861–1865) is a central theme in a number of Western movies. Even in films that are not directly about the war, the conflict is still present when characters reminisce of the past or wear wartime clothing. Most digital games that deal with the Civil War are either turn-based or real-time strategies (RTS) – it is actually rather surprising that the theme is hardly ever utilized in other kinds of games. One probable explanation is that the war is a rather delicate and divisive topic, which can only be addressed from a distance: squares depicting faceless units attacking other squares. Strategy games’ visual style and turn-based logic quite obviously continue the tradition of earlier board games as well. The neutrality is further emphasized by the possibility to choose sides at the beginning of the campaign (see Figure 3).

One of the earliest examples of the Civil War strategy subgenre is SSI’s The Battle of Shiloh (1981), which was followed by tens of others during the following decades. At the one end of the spectrum, there are lightweight RTSs, such as North and South (1989), based on the Belgian comic Les Tuniques Bleues, and at the other end “serious” turn-based series^[v]. By the late 1990s Sid Meier had become a household name, and his two simulations were published with the titles Sid Meier’s Gettysburg! (1997) and Sid Meier’s Antietam! (1998).

Adventure games, including text-based ones, have been placed in a Wild West context, as it is so obviously applicable and full of suitable ready-made narratives (Figure 4). Text adventures, or, interactive fiction, follow a somewhat different logic from action games as they focus more on riddles (Montfort, 2005,15). Even if Western protagonists are not often detective-types, mystery and secrets do feature in Western adventure films. Taking the purely textual adventures one step further, Sierra On-Line, known for its Leisure Suit Larry and various Quest series, used their game engine to create Gold Rush! in 1988, and in 1993 the humorous Freddy Pharkas: The Frontier Pharmacist. Gold Rush! contains direct references to the early Oregon Trail (1982–) series, where the protagonist drives an ox-wagon across the country and is subject to various lethal hazards that bring the game to an abrupt end. Other instances of Western-themed adventures are Lost Dutchman Mine (1989) and the horror game Alone in the Dark 3 (1994). Nowadays, after its heyday in the 1990s, the point-and-click genre has also received nostalgic treatment, as illustrated by the Finnish Fester Mudd: Curse of the Gold (2012), which does not hide its roots in the old Sierra On-Line and LucasArts games (see Kuorikoski 2014, 236).

Nintendo’s electromechanic arcade shooter Wild Gunman (1974) displayed Western-themed film clips using two projectors and paved the way for later digital games with a similar desire for perceived immediacy – “taking the player there” (cf. Bolter and Grusin 2000, 80–81). LaserDisc, dating all the way back to 1978, was an early attempt at using optical media for movies and, eventually, even interactive content. According to our findings, Konami’s Badlands from 1984 is the first Western-themed LaserDisc-based “interactive movie”, not unlike Cinematronics’ well-known Dragon’s Lair (1983) in its presentation: the simple game mechanics consist of watching pre-rendered animation clips and pressing the right button at the right time – nowadays also known as quick time events (see Wolf 2007, 99–102; Donovan 2010, 106–108; Skelly 2012). Mad Dog McCree featured real actors and was originally released in 1990 at the arcades, and later ported to a number of platforms ranging from the Nintendo Wii to Sega CD. Even though LaserDisc itself became obsolete in the course of the 1990s, its legacy lived on in various multimedia CD-ROM-based games that let the user view video clips and, quite mechanistically, select between options that took the story forward.

In addition to the main types of Western games, there are others that do not easily fit into any category. In several cases, the Wild West theme has been poured on top of practically unrelated products; among the clearest instances of such branding are various card games that are otherwise normal representatives of their respective genre (Figure 5). On the other hand, card games, most notably the iconic poker, are an integral part of the Western lore and at times incorporated as minigames in, for instance, adventure games.

During the approximately 35 years of Wild West themed games, some genres have disappeared and others have appeared. The changes have, obviously, been largely driven by technological development, but commercial reasons and the general trends of popular culture have affected games equally much. For example, LaserDisc games caught attention with their full-motion video in the 1980s, were remediated to the CD-ROM, and eventually faded into oblivion, as 3D technology matured and the audience became disillusioned with essentially simple multiple choice or reaction games: the last traces of LaserDisc can be found in the republications of old titles on contemporary platforms. Likewise, duel games, popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s, all but disappeared as video game consoles and computers became capable of more advanced formats. Wild West first person shooters can be considered as part of the same continuum; enabled by the increasing computing power and popularized by well-known hit titles. Some subgenres, such as Civil War strategy, are of a more lasting nature and, judging by the last 30 years, will stay with us for years to come.

Archetypes and Stereotypes

The West strongly implies a cast of characters peculiar to the setting, and the question arises how the player and the characters came to be represented in a digital medium. Arcade cabinet visuals and early console game cartridges were bolstered with printed images of cowboys and gunfights, which was also largely the case with the preceding mechanical games. The earliest video games could only depict characters as stick figures with rudimentary cowboy hats and revolvers, in dire contrast to films with their colorful cast of actors. An immediate problem in recreating a Western feel in a digital format was that early visuals needed to be very repetitive due to hardware limits, whereas Western films tend to delight on the raggedness and detail of the era. To illustrate this point, Civil War uniforms in games are usually identical, whereas in films and in reality the clothing was much more disparate and mismatched (Mollo 1983).

The 1980s’ game platforms could display more visual detail compared to their predecessors, and home computer games could also offer more diverse play settings, not constrained by the requirements of arcade cash flows. This meant that elements that previously had a more superficial role could now be integrated into the gameplay (see Figure 6). More complex Western character depictions would also emerge. Gunfright (1986) features a sheriff, searching the maze-like townscape for the wanted man. The villain is simply a goal to be found and shot down, but the townspeople come in two varieties: a shivering, cowardly townsman who points at the villain’s general direction, and a faceless, gliding long-skirted lady. The former plays a crucial part in facilitating the game aim, but also distills a familiar townsfolk stereotype. Law of the West (1985) for the Commodore 64 presents a first-person static view of a Western town, with a scenario partly derived from the movie High Noon (1952) (Figure 7). The player meets diverse characters: trigger-happy villains, but also a bar singer, a school teacher, town doctor, a child and a reluctant deputy. These confrontations are negotiated through a multiple-choice discussion, which may lead to a reaction-based duel and other outcomes.

In these early games, a most minimal cast of characters would include the (sheriff) hero and an army of generic hoodlum villains, sometimes Indians. As the example of Gunfright and Law of the West demonstrates, the 1980s computer game could already expand the scope of characters and even suggest their appropriate role in a Western setting, made apparent through the gameplay itself (see Figure 7). The duel and target shooting gameplay elements had at the same time become higher-tension sections rather than main content. Today’s content-heavy games, such as Red Dead Revolver (2004), Helldorado (2007) or Six Guns (2012) can practically refer to every possible – racially inspired – character stereotype and the associated plotlines (Figure 8).

In addition to ethnicity, also gender is a defining character of Western game casts: women in general are rare occurrences, and a female protagonist – or a villain – is almost an impossibility (cf. Dickerman, Christensen and Kerl-McClain 2008; Kangasvuo and Meriläinen 2009). These observations do not differ much from those made of video games in general (ibid.), but there seems to be an aversion to using female protagonists even in more recent Western games^[vi]. Helldorado, with its multi-character system could cast one woman as a predictable temptress, whereas in the shooter Wild Guns (1994) the player could choose to play either “Clint” or “Annie”. In older games, women appear as side characters in naively depicted roles, either as a sweet innocent girl to be rescued, or a “naughty” saloon singer. The traditional rigid gendering has been questioned and mocked by two recent indie titles, Calamity Annie (2008) and Even Cowgirls Bleed (2013), which both feature homosexual and feminist themes practically never seen in Western-themed games.

At first sight, studying film licenses might appear as an effective route to examining the remediation of the Western subject matter in video games. However, likely due to the general failure of the Western film at the box office in the early 1980s and onwards (McGee 2007, 235), Western film licenses from early video game era are virtually non-existent, and have remained scarce thereafter. Furthermore, the early generations of machines were not very conducive for creating Western worlds. Especially the widespread Atari 2600 platform was notoriously poor for recreating film visuals (Montfort and Bogost 2009, 119–120; Aldred 2012). Later, only a few films, such as Dances with Wolves (1990), have made the blockbuster status in the New Hollywood era (Neale 2003, 52–53), but possibly as a more serious work it was not accompanied with associated video game merchandise.

The first Western licenses do not relate to mainstream movies, but to comics and animation. Comic books, cartoons, and parodies offer a repertoire of condensed themes and exaggerated clichés that would also provide source material for games. In 1987, the sci-fi animation BraveStarr was brought to the computer screen, whereas Coktel Vision adapted French Western comics Lucky Luke: Nitroglycerine and Blueberry the same year. BraveStarr can be described as a generic action game with a bolted-on license, but both Lucky Luke and Blueberry attempted to recreate some aspects of the comic book medium on a computer screen, interpreting that format rather than film. Notably, these two games also both represent and remediate a European interpretation of the West, as opposed to the dominant American one.

Comic book frames, maps, windows, and minigames could be readily utilized on the early interactive platforms where animation and video playback were still limited (see Figure 9). This also meant the actions would be partly narrated instead of involving the player as a more active participant. Apart from licenses and attempts to interpret the medium on the screen, older games have a certain affinity with comic books with their streamlined visuals, switching between static screens and combinations of text and pictures. In contrast to action games, these approaches enable different storytelling devices and detail to the historical scenarios.

Despite the lack of licenses, unofficial references to films were made through borrowing titles. Already pinball machines in the 1950s and 1960s inherited their names from popular TV shows, such as Rawhide (1959–1965), Gunsmoke (1955–1975), Wagon Train (1957–1965), and Bonanza (1959–1973), without any apparent licensing deal or even visual reference to the series. Similarly, the computer games Wild Bunch (1984) and High Noon (1984) had relatively little to do with the respective source material. The High Noon game pits a solitary sheriff against a number of opponents and utilizes the soundtrack, yet plays fast and loose with the scenario, introducing horseback enemies and an overzealous undertaker not seen in the film.

In addition to movie name references, recognizable characters and scenarios have been used in games as well. The black-vested and white-shirted Kane (1986) seems to invoke the famous Gary Cooper figure from the film High Noon (1952), and Spaghetti Western Simulator (1990) brings out a hero called “Clint Westbound”. Sometimes the films are referenced directly: in Six-Gun Shootout (1985), historical and fictional gunfights could be re-enacted as tactical wargame scenarios, which include the famous gunfight at O.K. Corrall, the Jesse James raid at Northfield, and film settings from The Good, Bad and the Ugly (1966) and Rio Bravo (1959) (see Figure 10). Film references in games suggest how the Western theme in video games can rely on a complex external narrative (Juul 2001), not necessarily supplied with the game at all. An understanding of the Western genre and its conventions supports the often rudimentary actual game play experience.

One alternative to licensing is to use famous figures from the Old West^[vii]. All in all, it appears that this route has been used relatively little. There are apparently no major published games about Roy Bean, Doc Holliday, Calamity Jane and “Wild Bill” Hickock, despite their continued presence in films, television series and other Western lore. It is rather more likely that a Western game hero is a recognizable Clint Eastwood lookalike, a testament to the influence of Italian Westerns and the later Eastwood-directed films.

The way video games have tended to simplify and further codify Western themes has also paved way to questionable depictions. The “cowboys vs. injuns” scenario has become separated from any reality, leading to thoughtless depictions of slaughter as in the mid-eighties arcade game Wanted (1984). Likewise, racial tensions and the mistreatment of Native Americans or African slaves are hardly ever brought up in video games, even though they are abundant in cinema. People other than white are rarely ever seen in earlier games with the exception of Indians and the occasional Mexican. Even if led by good intentions, these kinds of representations are devoid of conscious understanding of nativism, a form of emerging American nationalist sentiment to the exclusion of others (e.g. Higham 1977) that might undergird even the most innocent depictions. Through the technically necessary reduction and avoidance of touchy issues, early video games could even be seen as promoting a uniformly white America. Whereas older cinema might have unwittingly forwarded one-dimensional ideas concerning who an American is, for instance Heaven’s Gate (1980) and Gangs of New York (2002) address nativism directly. Positively thinking, the increased capacity to depict a variety of peoples in digital media, although initially in the service of replicating stereotypes, may eventually lead to more critical expression in video games, too.

Constructing a Digital West

An examination of Western video and computer games reveals the ways codified representations found their way into a format that was, in the beginning, very limited. The established cast of characters, objects and scenery that “belong” to the Western theme needed to be culled drastically in order to fit the modest platforms and low production costs. Looking at the transference and remediation of action sequences to games provides ground for further comparison and analysis, whereas the absence of some common narrative elements and representations in most video games raises questions not simply explained with technical limitations. The gradual shift from “engineering bound” to “content bound” game production, as described by O’Donnell (2012), further suggests that same explanations do not hold true across time. The following examination advances through Western video game scenery and objects and moves towards the comparison of broader stylistic subgenres, abstract themes, and their utilization in video games.

In as much as the game scenery could be static images, even the 1980s games were fairly detailed, such as the backgrounds in Law of the West (Figure 7). Already the first duel games’ backgrounds featured protective coverage that was operative in the gameplay. Later games, although not yet immersive simulations, began to build a more complex internal logic consistent with the chosen Western setting. In Gunfright (Figure 7), the play area is framed with visual Western elements: a wanted poster, a section of revolver cylinder chambers and telegram notes. However, the occasional cactus and tumbleweed act not only as support for the Western milieu; they are also deadly obstacles that need to be avoided. Picking up a horse speeds up the travel considerably and protects the sheriff from these hazards.

The panoramic, side-scrolling format was popular in the 1980s Western action games. In contrast to static images, the scrolling terrain and scenery was limited to more selective and repeatable elements such as wooden building facades, barrels, corral fences, Monument Valley Mountains and cacti. Kane (1986) and Outlaws (1985) both include elements of horseback riding, whereas Express Raider (1986) added train assault action more particular to the Western setting. Especially the horseback riding scenarios are reminiscent of filmic chases. Guns are shot from horseback, while dodging enemy bullets and at the same time ensuring the steed can cross obstacles (Figure 11). Iron Horse (1986) is another side-scrolling train assault game, although dispensing with the horseback riding. The scrolling horizontal panorama allowed a broad inclusion of Western-type action, but also a narrative backbone to the games, a beginning and a straightforward progression towards the end. The same could be said of vertically scrolling games, for example Wild Western (1982), but at least in Gun.Smoke (1985) the Western elements are more superficial, as the action is nearly indistinguishable from war games like Commando (1985).

The relative lack of commonly seen Western themes in games is noteworthy, as it reveals the way the video game has selectively remediated cinema. In the first instance, there are numerous details and typical scenes present in Western cinema, which have not made a transition to games, especially the early ones. These often relate to “adult” themes of violence, religion, sex and racial tensions. Hanging from the neck, singing a funeral hymn, downing a whiskey, cauterizing a wound with a hot knife, shooting a lame horse and numerous other clichés are present in a number of films, but never made a transition to the early games. Despite being a common theme in films, threats of rape are but only vaguely referred to in some recent games of the 2000s. For example, in the beginning of Six Guns (2012) the player has to protect a woman from villains.

The absence of broader movie styles in video games strikes as curious, too. Certainly Western subgenres such as the Italian Western, revolution “Zapata-Spaghettis” (Frayling 1981, 52), revisionist, acid and horror themes had been explored in film long before the 1980s. Yet, it seems that the esthetics and action in the 1980s games mostly refer to the classic 1950s Westerns, with other influences as a spicing. The exploitation of spaghetti imagery and sounds only truly begun in the 1990s, with Outlaws (1997) as a major milestone, and since then has been on the increase. This may, again, be initially explained through technical platforms: the recreation of Ennio Morricone style atmospheric music requires more nuanced sound capabilities than what was available on the 1970s and early 1980s console and home computer hardware, and exploring film techniques like the Peckinpah-esque slow motion only became sensible in the later 3D games. Some exceptions can be found in arcade games, where productions were larger and platforms technically more capable: Iron Horse from 1986 has Morricone-pastiches in the music and Italian touches in the characters and setting.

When it comes to more abstract motives inherent to the American Western, themes of justice and individual morality rise to the fore, presented as a kind of epic complete with superhuman characters (Bazin 1971, 145–147). Freedom of the individual and the (male) individual’s chance to mold his destiny and the course of history around him are also apparent. This extends to a sympathetic view toward criminals, outlaws, and mountain men, either outside or above the law. In contrast, collective lynch mobs and posses, easily incited to acts of violence, are rarely in the right, as seen in, for example, The Ox-Bow Incident (1943) and The Tin Star (1957). This duality resonates, perhaps unintentionally, with a typical game setting of a powerful single player character pitted against masses of faceless enemies. In early games, the player is explicitly cast in the role of a justified hero, even if the gunning-down of enemies raises questions about game morality to the observer.

Certainly, addressing morality in games has been mostly superficial, as the player can usually detach him- or herself from the gameplay decisions (Sicart 2013). It does not seem, for example, that anything like the code of justified killing presented in films (Falconer 2014) has ever been meaningfully built into games, except as a simple demerit resulting from shooting innocents. It could still be argued that a Western setting provides better source material for exploring morality in games than most other genres. As the Western scenario drives the kind of characters that occupy the game world, and the functions they perform within the game rules, this also becomes a way to introduce moral elements. The West is not only about presenting the player with artificial moral choices, but implying a setting in which frontier justice, technological expansion, the Civil War, and the treatment of Native Americans inherently belong.

Although Western films have frequently been described as political (Frayling 1981; McGee 2007), such themes have been approached warily in video game design. Apart from some isolated examples, social aspects of the frontier have not been utilized in video games. For example, the railroad provides a milieu and action setting for games (Figure 12), but that is the extent of its presence. This can be compared to the nuanced role railroad plays in the film Once upon a Time in the West (1968) (for further analysis, see Frayling 1981, 195). War games and simulations about railroad construction might even be more suggestive in this respect, as the player can explore and become invested through actual gameplay to the contingencies of military conquest and the logic of industrial expansion respectively.

The omissions discussed above point not only to the technical limitations for building narrative content for early game platforms. Rather, they suggest there are underlying motives independent of platform characteristics that have guided the Western remediation to no small degree. This initially points toward the quick financial returns required from the amusement arcade setting, forcing action games into a harmless mold of light entertainment. As the first computer games were mostly made in imitation of arcade games, a radical rethinking of the Western did not immediately take place in that transition, either. There are other equally likely reasons to this evident harmlessness, which we cannot possibly address in depth here: the (at least supposedly) young target audience, combined with limited means of expression, and engineering-oriented production (see O’Donnell 2012) are among the most potential explanations as to why the first games hardly featured any critical reflection on Western clichés and mythology. As a counterexample, recent indie games, as discussed in the previous section, have demonstrated that even highly revisionist takes are possible, especially when commercial constraints are not present.

If the earlier games merely derived from a collective distillation of the Western theme and stereotypes, it is now possible to ask: What has the game medium added to the Western mythos? With video games, the question “What was it like in the West?”, at least implicit in many films, could now be delivered in first-person where a player’s actions have repercussions in the simulated game world. The player can now explore what-if scenarios first hand and even behave in ways unfit for a cinematic Western hero, returning to the straight and narrow via a saved position (Buel 2013). The player is faced with a choice of narrative, action and detailed management of equipment (Figure 13) not explicitly present in a Western film. Special equipment in films is almost inevitably plot- or character-defining, whereas in action and simulation games items are brought in play within the game rules. The player places his or her customized character inside complex gunfight and horse-riding sequences, which are played on a detailed Western terrain. The duel, target and riding elements that previously constituted a full game by themselves, are now only elements of a larger whole, suggestive of a complete Western ecosystem.

Conclusion

We expected the Western thematic to be an easily contained, marginal theme within video games. Even if true in the face of the total volume of published games, the amount of Western games was, nevertheless, surprising. In addition, there are numerous electromechanical, mechanical and pinball machines that we did not even seek to catalog extensively. While compiling the list, we also built a typology of Western games ranging from target shooters to role-playing games. Despite the initial assumptions, the Western theme is not confined to a particular era or country of origin. Our study did not reveal any striking differences between games originating from different countries, except that Civil War games are first and foremost an American phenomenon. Another national tendency is that Japanese game companies started fusing Western together with other themes earlier than elsewhere.

Western video games have been produced since the birth of the medium and are constantly being produced. In spite of their constant presence, they appear to hold a fairly minor position in the history of video games. One direction for further study would be to examine contemporary game literature and press: our current impression is that Western themes rarely made it to the covers of computer and video game magazines or books in the early 1980s, which favored “electronic” and technical themes seen more appropriate for the new medium. Among the most notable chronological observations is how the Western film disappeared from Hollywood’s limelight about the same time as video games emerged as widespread home entertainment. The more timely science fiction and martial arts fads supplied by films further pushed the Western underneath.

Comparing Western video games to cinema reveals certain similarities and differences. Despite some marginal exceptions, Western games did not grow to form a “classical” mainstream and a subversion of that mainstream, as arguably happened with the films. In our examination, we found that the duel and target games fell out of fashion as the sophistication of platforms increased. Early target games clearly evolved in competition or imitation with previous machines, much as fighting games, driving games, and first-person shooters have grown to become well-formed (non-thematic) video game genres. On the whole, there is little evidence of Western-themed video games critically reflecting on their predecessors, even if in most cases they have been obvious clones and follow-ups to previous titles. Novelty and innovation have tended to originate either from other media or another game genre. This could be changing as major releases (e.g. Red Dead Redemption) have set new milestones to which later games will, undoubtedly, be compared.

We found that Western games, too, come with their own fashions and fads. All possible styles provided by movies were not immediately utilized. Most early digital games hark back to the 1950s Western, whereas the visually distinct Italian Western began to have a major influence on games only in the 1990s. Later and current Western games appear to be going through a phase of comparative realism, genre-consciousness, and even “revisionist” themes, but also a fusion of science fiction, fantasy and horror elements – again something that gradually took place in cinema several decades earlier. The “realism” as seen in current-generation games could, therefore, be considered rather as remediation than a genuine attempt to provide a novel take on the frontier life.

Just like cinema, video games had to reinvent and remediate the Western thematic in their own terms. The films accentuate the unique and the improbable: a shot villain can fall a great distance into a water trough or a coffin for dramatic or humorous effect, a hidden gun turns the tables on a mass of enemies, the hero has the ultimate hand in a poker game, leading to accusations of cheating and an inevitable bar room brawl. As a video game relies on repetition and at least a modicum of simulation, these improbable events cannot be replicated multiple times without becoming unsatisfying and even more absurd than in the films. Instead, the players need to occupy themselves with minutiae and events not necessarily dwelled on much in other media, such as developing skills, managing and purchasing equipment, or mundane tasks made interesting, such as shooting rabbits. This kind of realignment brings out yet another potential “revision” of the genre, most likely in a previously unseen form.

References

All links have been checked 10.4.2015.

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Appendix: List of Western-Themed Games

Notes

^[i] Hereinafter referred to as video games for the sake of brevity.
^[ii] For further discussion on the connection between pinball and video games, see DeLeon (2014).
^[iii] We use the term Indian at places, as opposed to Native American, to be in line with the archaic language used in games and films.
^[iv] Comparable to ludological genres, but we have avoided the double use of the word “genre” here as it would create unnecessary confusion.
^[v] For example, SSG’s Decisive Battles of the American Civil War (1987–1988) and TalonSoft’s Battleground (1995–1998, parts 2, 4, 5, 7 and 9).
^[vi] In comparison, female protagonists in movies are uncommon, but existent: for example Rancho Notorius (1952), Calamity Jane (1953), Johnny Guitar (1954), Cat Ballou (1965), Les Pétroleuses (1972), The Quick and the Dead (1995) and Bandidas (2006).
^[vii] The Legend of Billy the Kid (1991), Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Circus (1989) and Gunfighter: The Legend of Jesse James (2001).

Delmer Daves, lännenelokuva, maisema, muisti

Hannu Salmi
hannu.salmi [a] utu.fi
Kulttuurihistorian professori
Turun yliopisto

Viittaaminen / How to cite: Salmi, Hannu. 2015. ”Maisema ja muisti Delmer Davesin lännenelokuvissa 1950–1959”. WiderScreen 18 (1-2). http://widerscreen.fi/numerot/2015-1-2/maisema-ja-muisti-delmer-davesin-lannenelokuvissa-1950-1959/

Tulostettava PDF-versio

Delmer Daves ohjasi 1950-luvulla sarjan huolellisesti suunniteltuja lännenelokuvia, jotka olivat myös kaupallisia menestyksiä. Artikkelissa käsitellään miten Daves rakensi oman ikonografiansa ennen kaikkea Arizonan maisemien varaan ja miten hän tehosti kuvastoa omalla persoonallisella visuaalisella tyylillään. Davesin lännenelokuvat ovat rakentaneet kulttuurista muistia myös audiovisuaalisessa mielessä, muovaamalla westernin kuvastoa ja sitä tapaa, jolla lajityyppi itse muistaa omaa menneisyyttään.

“Before it can ever be the repose for the senses, landscape is the work of the mind. Its scenery is built up as much from strata of memory as from layers of rock.”

Simon Schama: Landscape and Memory (1995, 11).

Delmer Daves (1904–1977) teki näyttävän Hollywood-uran, ensin näyttelijänä ja myöhemmin ohjaajana. Häntä ei useinkaan mainita keskeisten westernin tekijöiden joukossa, vaikka hän loi 1950-luvulla sarjan persoonallisia Villin lännen tulkintoja. Davesin kehitystä voi verrata sellaisiin tekijöihin kuin André de Toth ja Rudolph Maté, joiden uralla lännenelokuva merkitsi erityisen intensiivistä jaksoa 1950-luvulla. Kaikki kolme menestyivät 1940-luvun lopulla tiheätunnelmaisten rikoselokuvien ja film noirin taitajina, ja koska he olivat studio-ohjaajia, työtehtävät tulivat sitä mukaa, mihin yleisön kiinnostuksen arveltiin siirtyvän. On arvioitu, että juuri 1950-luku oli erityisen vahva westernin vuosikymmen: peräti neljännes Hollywoodin tuotannosta oli lännenseikkailuja (Manchel 1998, 92). Yleisön intohimoa tyydyttämään tarvittiin uusia tekijöitä, eikä ole ihme, että studioiden kontrolloitu järjestelmä antoi myös luovia vapauksia ja mahdollisti esimerkiksi Budd Boetticherin teosten kaltaiset melkein eksistentialistiset tulkinnat.

Delmer Daves opiskeli alun perin lakia Stanfordin yliopistossa, mutta veri veti näyttämötaiteen pariin. Hän oli jo opiskeluaikana esiintynyt parissakymmenessä näytelmässä ja myös ohjannut esityksiä. Jo 1920-luvun alussa hän pääsi Hollywoodiin tarpeiston hoitajaksi James Cruzen lännenelokuvaan Karavaani (The Covered Wagon, 1923), jossa hän myös näytteli pienen sivuosan, osallistui välitekstien filmaukseen sekä julisteen suunnitteluun (Wicking 1969, 55). Monenlaisten tehtävien jälkeen ohjaajan ura alkoi vuonna 1943 sotaelokuvalla Tavoitteena Tokio (Destination Tokyo). Sodan jälkeen Daves niitti mainetta rikoselokuvilla Punainen talo (Red House, 1947) ja Pimeä käytävä (Dark Passage, 1947), joita pidetään film noirin klassikoina. Tämän jälkeen seurasi kunnianhimoinen sarja lännenelokuvia: Katkaistun nuolen (Broken Arrow, 1950) jälkeen valmistuivat Sotarummut (Drum Beat, 1954), Peloton mies (Jubal, 1956), Erämaan laki (The Last Wagon, 1956), Armoton ase (3:10 to Yuma, 1957), Cowboy (1958) ja Lainsuojattomat (The Badlanders, 1958). Sarja huipentui Gary Cooperin tähdittämään Hirsipuuhun (The Hanging Tree, 1959). Davesin elokuvat menestyivät hyvin, ja yhtiön panostuksesta kertovat korkeat tuotantoarvot.

Davesin lännenelokuvista voi löytää useita yhdistäviä tekijöitä. Useimmat elokuvat kommentoivat etnisiä kysymyksiä, alkuperäisten amerikkalaisten asemaa ja rasismia. Tarinan tasolla niissä on paikoitellen shakespearelaisen tragedian tuntua, varsinkin Katkaistussa nuolessa ja Pelottomassa miehessä. Vahvimmin Davesin westerneistä jäävät kuitenkin mieleen maisemat: sekä ne fyysiset ympäristöt, joihin elokuvat sijoittuvat, että ne kuvitteelliset paikat, joita elokuvat audiovisuaalisin keinoin rakentavat.

Tämä artikkeli pohtii, miten Delmer Daves lännenelokuvissaan rakensi maisemaa ja miten maisema ja muisti niissä yhdistyivät. Näkökulma on perusteltu paitsi Davesin elokuvien ilmeisen visuaalisuuden vuoksi myös siksi, että lännenelokuvaan lajityyppinä liittyy tietynlaista ikonisuutta. Ympäristön merkitys ei rajaudu vain elokuvaan vaan taustalla on laajempi mytologinen kuva Villistä lännestä, jota ennen elävän kuvan aikaa rakennettiin kirjallisuudessa. Henry Nash Smith (1950) korostaa klassisessa teoksessaan Virgin Land ajatusta ”neitseellisen maan” merkitystä amerikkalaiselle itseymmärrykselle ja ekspansiolle kohti länttä. Tämä puolestaan kytkeytyy jo vanhempaan perinteeseen tulkita yhdysvaltalaista identiteettiä rajaseudun kautta. Frederick Jackson Turnerin (1976 [1893], 184–185) kuuluisissa teeseissä rajaseutu oli ”villeyden ja sivilisaation kohtauspaikka”. Kohti länttä etenevän uudisasukkaan oli joko ”hyväksyttävä ympäristön asettamat ehdot tai tuhouduttava”. Erämaan karut näkymät eivät lännenelokuvassa ole vain pintaa: ne viittaavat laajempaan identiteettiä muovaavaan merkitykseen, jossa ympäristö ja toiminta punoutuvat kokonaisuudeksi. Vaikka Yhdysvaltain historiassa maiseman ja identiteetin suhde on, tunnetusti, esitetty tiiviinä, on selvää, että maisemaa ylipäätään on tulkittu kulttuurisena prosessina, jolla on identiteettiä muovaama vaikutus.

Maiseman ja muistin suhde on ollut ihmistieteellisen tutkimuksen kohteena jo vuosikymmenien ajan. Simon Schaman Landscape and Memory (1995) keskittyi fyysisen ympäristön ja kansanomaisen ja myyttisen muistin suhteeseen antiikista 1800-luvulle. Elokuvaa teos ei käsittele, mutta se pyrkii osoittamaan luonnon ja kulttuurin, maiseman ja muistin erottamattoman yhteyden. Toisaalta Yhdysvaltain lännen tutkimuksessa fyysisen ympäristön ja historian suhde on ollut vahva jo Turnerin teesien vaikutuksesta. Uudempaa, maisemaa korostavaa western-tutkimusta edustavat Peter C. Rollinsin ja John E. O’Connorin toimittama Hollywood’s West: The American Frontier in Film, Television & History (2005) ja Deborah A. Carmichaelin The Landscape of Hollywood Westerns: Ecocriticism in an American film genre (2006). Suomessa tilan ja paikan kysymyksiä Yhdysvaltain historian näkökulmasta on tutkinut Riitta Laitinen väitöskirjassaan Lived Land: Identification with Places in Navajo Society 1800–1930 (1999). Yhteistä tälle tutkimukselle on, ettei maisema ole vain se maan pinta ja ne pinnanmuodot, jotka voidaan katseella havaita: sillä on syvällisempi side paikan kokemukseen ja itseymmärryksen rakentumiseen (Schama 1995; Laitinen 1999; Taylor 2008). Delmer Davesin lännenelokuvien kohdalla on tärkeää pitää mielessä Villin lännen tulkintaperinne, mutta yhtä olennaista on miettiä, mitä maiseman rakentaminen 1950-luvun tilanteessa merkitsi. Elokuvien kuvastoa voidaan tulkita tihentymänä, jossa yksilöllinen ja yhteisöllinen, audiovisuaalinen ja kulttuurinen muisti kohtasivat.

Runous ja spektaakkeli – maiseman jäljillä

Christopher Wickingin Screen-lehteen vuonna 1969 tekemässä haastattelussa Delmer Daves kommentoi useaan otteeseen maisemaan liittyviä kysymyksiä, vaikkei Wicking niistä suoraan kysynytkään. Lännenelokuvan lähtökohtiin liittyvä vihje ilmenee kohdassa, jossa Daves viittaa vuonna 1952 valmistuneeseen elokuvaan Teksasilaisen paluu (Return of the Texan, 1952). Daves itse kutsuu teosta westerniksi, mutta tarkkaan ottaen elokuva sijoittuu valmistumisajankohdan todellisuuteen, autojen ja puhelinten aikaan, jossa Villin lännen ympäristöt ovat yhä läsnä. Daves ja käsikirjoittaja Dudley Nichols leikittelivät lajityypillisillä rajoilla, sillä päähenkilöt käyvät kesken kaiken kaupungissa katsomassa lännenelokuvaa – samaan aikaan kun elämä Teksasin perukoilla hengittää yhä rajaseudun tahtiin. Vielä tässä vaiheessa Daves itse ei ollut yksiselitteisesti lännenelokuvien tekijä. Takana oli toki Katkaistu nuoli, mutta myös annos film noiria. Teksasilaisen paluun jälkeen oli vuorossa seikkailuelokuva Kultaisen kondorin aarre (Treasure of the Golden Condor, 1953).

Alun perin Teksasilaisen paluun piti olla Henry Hathawayn projekti, mutta ohjaaja ehti sairastua ennen kuvausten alkua, ja hyvin pikaisella aikataululla Twentieth Century-Foxin Darryl F. Zanuck pestasi Davesin ohjausvastuuseen. Daves kertoo haastattelussa, että hän halusi tehdä elokuvan pienellä budjetilla – toisin kuin ilmeisesti Hathaway, joka tuli myöhemmin tunnetuksi spektaakkelimaisista westerneistä. Daves kävi valmisteluvaiheessa Teksasissa, jonne tarina oli sijoitettu, mutta hänen mukaansa sieltä ei löytynyt mitään erikoista:

”So I went to Texas where the story was laid. It had no pictorial value at all, flat, dull, dusty, nothing country. So I told the producer, it was his first film: ‘I’ll show you Texas, but in Arizona where it’s flat. It has the Texas feeling, but at least we have clouds, at least we have shadows; we haven’t dust that just coats everything.’ So I did. I found a place in Arizona which was the equivalent of the place in Texas.” (Wicking 1969, 63–64.)

Kuvaukset tehtiin siis Arizonassa, tarkemmin ottaen Apachen piirikunnassa sijaitsevassa Springervillen kaupungissa ja sen ympäristössä. Sijainti oli edullinen, sillä se oli lähempänä Hollywoodia, ja pölyä oli vähemmän haittaamassa elokuvan tekemistä. Springerville oli korkeammalla merenpinnasta kuin alun perin kaavaillut teksasilaiset ympäristöt, ja nähtävästi juuri Teksasilaisen paluun kuvauksissa Daves mielistyi olosuhteisiin. Hän toteaa: ”All of my films are done in high desert country, seven or eight thousand feet high. There’s something special about the atmosphere. It’s clean and clear – I love to shoot in the winter time.” (Wicking 1969, 64.) Puhtaalla ilmalla oli epäilemättä merkitystä Davesin myöhemmissä lännenelokuvissa, jotka kuvattiin sekä väreissä että laajakangasmuodossa.

Teksasilaisen paluussa on maiseman näkökulmasta muutakin kiinnostavaa kuin ”Arizonan tasaisuus” ja ilman puhtaus. Tarina kertoo Sam Crockettista (Dale Robertson), joka muuttaa Kansasista Teksasiin kahden poikansa, Yo-Yon ja Steven, sekä isoisänsä Firth Crockettin (Walter Brennan) kanssa. Puoliso on kuollut, ja Sam palaa juurilleen. Isoisä on jääräpäinen mutta hellyttävä; hän ei kykene pitämään metsästysvaistoaan kurissa ja alistumaan piikkilankojen kahlitsemaan maahan, josta erämaan vapaus on kadonnut. Hän on lännenelokuvista tuttu old timer, joka muistaa rajaseudun elämän ankaruuden. Firth Crockettin suhde luontoon kuvataan läheisenä, jopa runollisena. Elokuvan lopussa isoisä johdattaa pojanpoikansa metsään. Rikkinäisen perheen lapset näkevät yhtäkkiä metsän siimeksessä peuraperheen, mikä on kuin hetkellisesti esiin ilmaantunut arkadinen visio tai unelma, ja isä pitää pojanpojilleen puheen rakkaudesta. Sitten hän kellahtaa sydänvaivansa uuvuttamana metsän keskelle lastenlastensa viereen.

Teksasilaisen paluun loppukohtaus yhdistää maiseman ja muistin. Isoisän visio ennen kuolemaa on kuin muistuma maailmasta, jota ei enää ole, yhteydestä ihmisen ja luonnon välillä. Se ylittää lännenelokuvan perinteisen vastakkainasettelun villeyteen ja sivistykseen tai erämaahan ja puutarhaan. Pastoraalinen näkymä ei edusta erämaan karuutta mutta ei myöskään ihmisen luomaa puutarhaa. Se on pikemminkin muistuma symbioosista, joka olisi voinut olla ja jonka isoisä haluaa siirtää perillisilleen.

Teksasilaisen paluussa suhde luontoon on runollinen, mutta samalla itse elokuva on mustavalkoisuudessaan vaatimaton – minkä Daves itsekin totesi. Kaksi vuotta aiemmin hän oli kuitenkin ohjannut ensimmäisen lännenelokuvansa Katkaistu nuoli, joka on visuaalisesti näyttävä, kuten moni myöhempikin Davesin western. Katkaistu nuoli merkitsi James Stewartille paluuta lännenelokuvaan vuoden 1939 jälkeen. Tosin ensi-iltaan ehti hieman aiemmin Anthony Mannin Winchester ’73 – kohtalon ase (Winchester ’73, 1950). Katkaistu nuoli alkaa James Stewartin tunnistettavalla äänellä, joka johdattelee paitsi aikaan myös paikkaan:

”This is the story of a land, of the people who lived on it in the year 1870, and of a man whose name was Cochise. He was an Indian – leader of the Chiricahua Apache tribe. I was involved in the story and what I have to tell happened exactly as you’ll see it – the only change will be that when the Apaches speak, they will speak in our language. What took place is part of the history of Arizona and it began for me here where you see me riding.”

Vaikka päähenkilö vakuuttaa kertovansa historiasta mahdollisimman tarkasti, tarina asettuu metatasolle, kun alaviitteenomaisesti kertoja viittaa intiaanien puheeseen, joka tulkitaan ”in our language”. Katkaistu nuoli pohjautuu historiallisiin tapahtumiin, mutta tätä ei erityisesti alleviivata, vaan katsojan täytyy itse tunnistaa, mistä on kyse. Aikalaiskatsojalle se ei ole ollut ongelma, sillä Katkaistu nuoli perustui Elliott Arnoldin vuonna 1947 julkaisemaan romaaniin Blood Brother, jossa käsiteltiin Tom Jeffordsin ja apassipäällikkö Cochisen ystävyyttä. Elokuvan alussa Jeffords (James Stewart) törmää haavoittuneeseen intiaaniin ja auttaa tätä, mitä muut valkoiset pitävät kummallisena, luopiomaisena. Alusta lähtien on selvää, että Katkaistu nuoli käsittelee intiaanien näkökulmaa vahvemmin kuin monet muut aikakauden westernit.

Katkaistun nuolen historiallisena taustana on rauha, jonka Cochise solmi kenraali Oliver O. Howardin kanssa vuonna 1872. Cochise (Jeff Chandler) näyttäytyy Davesin tulkinnassa melkein aatelisena: hän on kunnian mies, joka pitää sanansa kaikissa olosuhteissa. Poliittisen tilanteen kuvaus tuo mieleen monet myöhemmät historian hetket. Kummallakin puolella rintamaa on omiin vakaumuksiinsa pitäytyviä jääräpäitä, jotka käyvät yksinäistä sissisotaansa rauhanpyrkimyksiä vastaan. Daves ei kuvaa kumpaakaan osapuolta puhtoisena, mutta hän antaa sijaa Jeffordsin ja Cochisen syvenevälle ystävyydelle, joka saa kestämään myös oman puolen vääryydet.

Katkaistu nuoli ei ole eikä pyri olemaan etnografisen tarkka kuvaus intiaanikulttuureista: rituaalien kuvauksen kautta Daves kuitenkin rakentaa kuvaa toiseudesta, jonka ymmärtämistä Jeffords haluaa yrittää. Silti keskeistä on samanaikainen pyrkimys kuvata maata alkuperäisten amerikkalaisten ympäristönä, ja kaikkea värittää tietoisuus historiasta, maisemaan liittyvästä muistista. Daves totesi itse taustatyön merkityksen:

”I have a great library on Americana at home and each film has been the result of a great deal of research. I’m gradually making a whole composite of the west because some of the films like Broken Arrow, Drum Beat and The Last Wagon portrayed Indian themes. Then we gradually move forward in the west through Cowboy and The Hanging Tree and the bad-man west, which was 3:10 to Yuma.” (Wicking 1969, 60.)

Olennaista Katkaistussa nuolessa on, että se on spektaakkelinomainen – ja siinä mielessä melko vastakkainen Teksasilaisen paluulle. Elokuva on tehty loisteliaissa väreissä, ja varsinkin hääkohtaus on tietoisen koristeellinen. Samalla elokuva asettaa tapahtumat Arizonan Sedonan jylhiin maisemiin, joita hallitsevat jyrkät kalliorinteet ja vuoret. Maisema on katsojalle tarjottu nähtävyys, attraktio, mutta sillä on myös tehtävänsä. Arizonan maisemat ovat laajempi kehys, joka ylittää yksilöllisen tason ja edustaa siinä mielessä historiallisuutta. Se asettaa yksilöt mittakaavaan, joka ylittää arkisen elämän.

Arizonan Sedona ja lännenelokuvan ikoniset maisemat

Maiseman merkitys on liitetty vahvasti lännenelokuvaan lajityyppinä. Westernille eivät ole tyypillisiä vain revolverit ja lierihatut vaan myös avarat maisemat (Salmi 1985, 54–64). James F. Scott (2009, 103) toteaa, ettei ”missään lajityypissä side paikan ja toiminnan välillä oli niin vahva kuin lännenelokuvassa, jossa ylevät maisemat viittaavat elämää suurempaan käyttäytymiseen ja jossa karjanajajat, lainvartijat ja uudisasukkaat ammentavat sekä henkistä voimaa että poliittista oikeutusta olemassaololleen maasta, jota koskettavat, ja ilmasta, jota hengittävät”. Samaan hengenvetoon Scott toteaa, että lännenelokuvan vastakkainasettelut (puutarha/villeys, uudisasukas/alkuasukas, sheriffi/revolverisankari, vaimo/saluunatyttö) ovat hallinneet western-mielikuvitusta, mutta ne ovat samalla olleet jatkuvan uudelleen tulkinnan kohteena – ja ovat yhä. Vanhemmassa western-tutkimuksessa maisemaa lähestyttiin usein Villin lännen myyttisten vastakkainasettelujen kautta, mutta viimeaikaisessa tutkimuksessa on nostettu esiin myös ekokriittiset näkökulmat (Carmichael 2006).

Kaikkiin lajityyppeihin liittyy kysymys genren sisäisestä muistista. Elokuvissa nähtävät maisemat eivät ole vain suhteessa vallitseviin kulttuurisiin koodeihin vaan elokuvat kierrättävät tietoisesti aiempien teosten ympäristöjä. Elokuvat eivät siis mukauta katsojaa aiempiin konventioihin vain tarinan tasolla vaan myös materiaalisesti, sijoittamalla tapahtumat tuttuihin tai tutun oloisiin ympäristöihin. Syy voi olla käytännöllinen, paikkojen helppo saavutettavuus, johon Daves viittasi Teksasilaisen paluun kohdalla, mutta tärkeämpää on se, miten elokuvan tekijät pitkäjänteisesti rakentavat muistia maiseman kautta ja luovat ja kiinnittävät merkityksiä maisemaan elokuvasta toiseen. Tästä hyvä esimerkki on Monument Valleyn keskeisyys lännenelokuvan kuvastossa. Monument Valley sijaitsee navajoreservaatissa Arizonan ja Utahin rajalla erämaassa, jota hallitsevat eroosion veistämät jylhät kivimuodostelmat. Paikan filmaattisuuteen vaikuttaa rautaoksidin luoma punertava väri, mutta laaksossa on myös mangaanioksidin sävyttämiä tummanharmaita muodostelmia. Navajointiaaneille suhde maisemaan oli uskonnollinen, ja Monument Valley oli pyhä paikka, joka tunnettiin nimellä Tsé Bií Ndzisgaii (Laitinen 1999, 204–205; Olsen 2008, 34). Kirjailija Zane Grey oli sijoittanut western-romaanejaan Monument Valleyyn jo 1910- ja 1920-luvulla, irrottanut ne navajoperinteestä ja suositellut maisemia myös elokuvantekijöille (Harvey 2011, 12, 79–80). Monument Valleyn vahvin mytologisoija oli sittemmin John Ford, joka kuvasi näissä karuissa mutta elämää suuremmissa maisemissa useita elokuviaan, Hyökkäys erämaassa (Stagecoach, 1939), Aavikon laki (My Darling Clementine, 1946), Apassilinnake (Fort Apache, 1948), Keltainen nauha (She Wore a Yellow Ribbon, 1949), Etsijät (The Searchers, 1956), Musta kersantti (Sergeant Rutledge, 1960) ja Cheyenne (Cheyenne Autumn, 1964). Paikassa on sittemmin kuvattu myös monia muita teoksia, road-elokuvista tieteiselokuviin, mutta se on säilynyt western-ympäristönä, mistä kertoo Gore Verbinskin vuonna 2013 valmistunut The Lone Ranger.

James F. Scottin (2009, 108) mukaan klassisessa lännenelokuvassa kuvataan usein sitä, miten sankarit hevosineen hallitsevat spektaakkelimaista mutta haastavaa ympäristöä. Usein aloituskuvissa päähenkilö myötäilee maisemaa ja seuraa reittiä taitavasti ikään kuin yksilöä suuremman mittakaavan osana. Näin on Davesin Katkaistun nuolen ensimmäisissä ja viimeisissä kuvissa. Samoin on George Stevensin Etäisten laaksojen miehessä (Shane, 1953), jonka päähenkilö tuntuu melkein vuorten synnyttämältä. Scott (2009, 108) tulkitsee Alan Laddin esittämää Shanea jylhän maiseman voimakkuuden ja vakauden inhimillisenä ilmauksena. Davesin tuotannossa tätä asetelmaa muistuttaa Peloton mies, jonka taustana ovat Wyomingin lumihuippuiset vuoret, tosin Davesin tulkinnassa päähenkilö tuntuu alusta lähtien olevan ristiriidassa ympäristönsä kanssa: Jubal Troop (Glenn Ford) hoipertelee kuvaan ja lopulta vierii jyrkkää rinnettä alas. Pelottomassa miehessä tapahtuu muutos siinä mielessä, että viimeisissä kuvissa Jubal on saavuttanut tasapainon ympäristönsä kanssa.

Myös Katkaistun nuolen alun ja lopun voi tulkita muutoksena. Elokuvan alussa Jeffords saapuu tasaista preeriaa kulkien, kun hän lopussa on mukautunut jylhien vuoristojen rytmiin. Elokuvan tapahtumat sijoittuvat Arizonaan, juuri Sedonaan, jossa Daves oli Teksasilaisen paluussa käyttänyt tasaisempia maastoja. Katkaistussa nuolessa ympäristö on kuitenkin täysin toisenlainen: elokuva kertoo rauhanneuvotteluista intiaanien ja valkoisten välillä, mutta samalla rotuvihasta ja sissisodasta, joka uhkaa rauhan mahdollisuutta. Vuoriston vaikeakulkuisuus on kuin viittaus siihen vaivalloiseen polkuun, joka on kuljettava rinnakkaiselon mahdollistamiseksi.

Katkaistu nuoli oli sodanjälkeisessä Hollywoodissa avainelokuvia intiaaninäkökulman esille tuomisessa. Samana vuonna valmistui myös Anthony Mannin Paholaisen portti (Devil’s Doorway, 1950), joka käsitteli myös kriittisesti etnistä kamppailua, mutta se jäi Davesin elokuvan varjoon. Katkaistussa nuolessa ajatus rauhasta emotionalisoituu ja sukupuolittuu siinä mielessä, että Jeffords avioituu apassitytön, Sonseeahrayn (Debra Paget), kanssa. Harmonia ilmenee maiseman ja ihmisen saumattomuutena. Romanssi syttyy idyllisessä järvenrantaympäristössä, joka tuntuu mahdollistavan herkän tunnerekisterin ja samalla kulttuurien välisen kuilun ylittämisen. Jeffordsin ja Sonseeahrayn rakkaus täyttyy jylhien maisemien keskellä, kun rakastavaiset lepäävät järven rannalla ja kamera paljastaa takaa kuuluisan Cathedral Rockin piirteet. Kohtauksen voi toisaalta tulkita myös valloitustarinana, jossa miehen valta ulottuu samalla sekä ympäristöön että naiseen.

Kohtauksen taustalla näkyvä Cathedral Rock on Arizonan valokuvatuimpia luonnonnähtävyyksiä, jonka yhdysvaltalainen yleisö on todennäköisesti tunnistanut ensinäkemältä. Kallion huippu kohoaa 1500 metrin korkeuteen Coconinon luonnonpuistossa, ja ferriraudan värjäämä punainen hiekkakivi saa sen erottumaan maisemasta varsinkin aurinkoisella säällä. Vuoren nimi viittaa katedraaliin, mikä johtunee sekä luonnon luomasta ornamentiikasta että muodostelman mittasuhteista. Samalla tuntuu, että Cathedral Rock on vanhastaan ollut kunnioituksen kohde, luoksepääsemätön ja siksi pyhä. Jeffordsin ja Sonseeahrayn suhde saa maiseman kautta symbolisen siunauksensa.

On ilmeisestä, että Delmer Daves lähti Katkaistun nuolen jälkeen tietoisesti rakentamaan Arizonan Sedonasta lännenelokuvan myyttistä maisemaa samaan tapaan kuin John Ford oli tehnyt Monument Valleylle. Arizona oli suhteellisen lähellä Hollywoodia, mutta käytännöllisen selityksen sijaan voi abstraktimmin olettaa, että Daves käytti Cathedral Rockia luodakseen uuden tason westernin ikonografiaan. Cathedral Rock vilahti vuonna 1950 myös John Farrow’n lännenelokuvassa Miehet kuparilaaksossa (Copper Canyon), mutta tämän jälkeen nimenomaan Daves palasi ”katedraalikalliolle” elokuvissaan Sotarummut ja Erämaan laki, joissa Cathedral Rock nähdään jo heti alussa. Katkaistun nuolen ja varsinkin Erämaan lain välillä on merkittävä tulkinnallinen muutos. Kun edellisessä punainen vuori kehystää harmonian ja tasapainon kuvausta, jälkimmäisessä päähenkilö Comanche Todd (Richard Widmark) ampuu kylmäverisesti tuntemattoman miehen. Elokuva alkaa katkeruuden tunnelmissa, ja katsojalle selviää pian, että Erämaan laki käsittelee rasismia Katkaistua nuolta synkemmin. Toddia halveksitaan intiaanina, mutta tämän rinnalle tarina asettaa uudisasukaskaravaanin mukana kulkevat sisarukset: toisen äiti on intiaani, toisen valkoinen. Sisarusten jännite purkautuu elokuvan loppua kohti samalla, kun Todd voittaa nuorten luottamuksen opastaessaan heidät apassialueen halki. Ero Katkaistuun nuoleen on merkittävä, mutta samalla on selvää, että Comanche Todd on sinut ympäristönsä kanssa. Ehkä alun asetelma korostaa, että syrjitty päähenkilö on nimenomaan omalla maallaan, omassa elementissään.

Cathedral Rock oli ikonisin Arizonan Sedonan näkymistä, mutta Daves kuvasi toki muuallakin samalla seudulla, Flagstaffista etelään. Tasaisempia maisemia hän hyödynsi elokuvassaan Armoton ase, joka on Davesin lännenelokuvien sarjassa poikkeuksellinen jo siksi, ettei sitä ole kuvattu loisteliaissa väreissä. Lopputulos on tiivistunnelmainen mustavalkoinen draama, joka muistuttaa Fred Zinnemannin Sheriffiä (High Noon, 1952). Sedonan jylhien maisemien sijalla ovat ankeat tasangot. Haastattelussa Daves kertoi kuvanneensa elokuvansa talvella (Wicking 1969, 64). Sedonassa oli toki filmattu lännenelokuvia aiemminkin, ja 1950-luvulla siellä kuvattiin muun muassa Raoul Walshin Kadonnut jälki (Gun Fury, 1953) ja Jacques Tourneur’n Yksinäinen ratsastaja (Stranger on Horseback, 1955). Aineistona voi käyttää Internet Movie Databasen kuvauspaikkatietoja, vaikkakin on todettava, että ne ovat monilta osin puutteellisia. Esimerkiksi Sotarumpuja ei mainita lainkaan Cathedral Rockin kohdalla. Aineistosta kuitenkin ilmenee, että Arizonasta tuli lännenelokuvien tärkeä kuvauspaikka nimenomaan toisen maailmansodan jälkeen. Tämä voi johtua liikenteellisistä yhteyksistä, mutta myös kuvauskalustoa oli helpompi siirtää kuin aiemmin.

Davesin pyrkimys konstruoida näyttävää maisemaa osoittaa tietoisuutta lajityypillisestä muistista, westernin kantamasta kulttuuriperinnöstä, jota hän omilla teoksillaan halusi muovata. Christopher Wickingin Screen-lehteen vuonna 1969 toteuttama haastattelu kielii myös, että Daves hahmotti 1950-luvun lännenelokuvatuotantonsa kokonaisuutena, jolla oli suunta. On selvää, että ohjaaja rakensi omien aiempien tulkintojensa varaan, ja tässä työssä Cathedral Rockin kaltaiset maisemat olivat tärkeä polttopiste.

Ikonisten maisemien käytössä ja rakentamisessa on kiinnostavaa, että tunnistettavat kohteet ovat aina myös kartografisia. Ne kiinnittävät elokuvan niihin paikkoihin, joiden olemassaolosta katsojat ovat tietoisia ja joiden tulkintaperinne elää vahvasti myös elokuvateatterin ulkopuolella. Epäilemättä lännenelokuvassa, niin kuin valkokankaalla yleensäkin, on aina hyödynnetty myös ei-paikkoja, sellaisia ympäristöjä, jotka voisivat olla missä tahansa ja jotka eivät tunnu asettuvan kartografiseen maailmaan. Daves kuvasi Katkaistua nuolta myös Alabama Hillsissä, Lone Pinessa, joka on vain 200 mailin ja kolmen tunnin ajomatkan päässä Hollywoodista. Vaikka maisemat tulivat sittemmin tutuksi western-yleisölle muun muassa André de Tothin ja Budd Boetticherin elokuvista, ja Alabama Hillsin kalliorivit ovat tunnistettavia, seutu on muuntunut sujuvasti raamattuspektaakkelien pyhäksi maaksi, Tarzan-seikkailujen erämaaksi tai Star Trek -elokuvien vieraiksi taivaankappaleiksi. Kuvauspaikat ovat muovattavissa monenlaisiksi maisemiksi.

Maiseman muisti

Film Comment -lehti julkaisi vuonna 2003 ranskalaisen elokuvaohjaajan Bertrand Tavernier’n artikkelin ”Ethical Romantic”, joka on puolustuspuhe unohdetulle Delmer Davesille. Samalla se on kollegan näkökulma siihen, millaiset tyylilliset ja temaattiset piirteet olivat Davesille ominaisia. Tavernier rakentaa vastakkainasettelua sekä John Fordin ja Davesin että Anthony Mannin ja Davesin välille. Jos Ford pyrki elokuvissaan eeppiseen teatraalisuuteen ja luonnon mytologisointiin, Daves rakentaa yhteyttä ihmisen ja luonnon välille (Tavernier 2003, 44). Vastakkainasettelut tuntuvat olevan western-tutkimukselle luonteenomaisia, sillä Jeanine Basinger (2007, 71) asettaa kirjassaan Anthony Mann kontrastin Davesin Katkaistun nuolen ja Mannin Paholaisen portin välille, jälkimmäisen hyväksi. Basinger korostaa Mannin taitavaa tilankäyttöä, jossa fyysiset ympäristöt reagoivat päähenkilöiden psyykkiseen tilaan. Myös Tavernier (2003, 44) asettaa Mannin ja Davesin kilpailuasetelmaan mutta tulkitsee Mannin tilankäytön perustuvan enemmän oppositioon tai vastaliikkeisiin, kun taas Daves pohjaa integraatioon tai sulauttamiseen siten, että kameranliikkeiden tehtävä on yhdistää päähenkilöitä ympäristöönsä. Tässä työssä Daves käyttää paljon esimerkiksi nosturia ja pitkiä otoksia, tiheän leikkauksen sijaan. Glenn Ford, joka teki kolme lännenelokuvaa Davesin kanssa, vahvistaa näkemyksen siitä, että ohjaaja valmisteli visuaaliset ratkaisunsa äärimmäisen huolellisesti (Joyner 2009, 18). Tavernier’n ajatus sulauttavasta tilan luomisesta on perusteltu, mutta toki Daves myös dramatisoi kerrontaansa viljelemällä tilallisia kontrasteja. Elokuvassa Hirsipuu tapahtumat huipentuvat loppukohtauksessa, jossa päähenkilö Doc Frail (Gary Cooper) pelastuu juuri ja juuri hirsipuusta.

Ohjaajien asettaminen vastakkain, puhumattakaan Basingerin suorasanaisista arvostelmista, ei palvele maiseman ja muistin mekanismien ymmärtämistä. Pikemminkin on niin, että Daves, Ford ja Mann työskentelivät selvästi erilaisin tavoin ja tyylillisin ratkaisuin. Davesin kohdalla kiinnostavaa on se, että estetiikka tukee pyrkimystä korostaa maiseman emotionaalista merkitystä ja henkilökohtaisen ja kulttuurisen muistin yhteenkietoutumista.

Daves totesi haastattelussa, että hän pyrki aina perehtymään mahdollisimman huolellisesti kulloisenkin aiheen historialliseen taustaan (Wicking 1969, 60). Esimerkkinä historiallisuudesta hän mainitsee elokuvan Cowboy (1958), joka perustui Frank Harrisin omaelämäkerralliseen teokseen My Reminiscences as a Cowboy. Nykykatsojasta, joka on nähnyt westernin myöhemmät kehitysvaiheet, elokuva tuo mieleen 1960-luvun barokkiset lännenkomediat. Hyvin 50-lukuhenkisten, graafisten alkutekstien jälkeen katsoja johdatellaan chicagolaiseen loistohotelliin, jossa Frank Harris (Jack Lemmon) työskentelee. Hotellissa majailee meksikolainen perhe, jonka tyttäreen Mariaan (Anna Kashfi) Frank on ihastunut. Yhtäkkiä tärkeitä vieraita on tulossa ja, hämmästyttävää kyllä, tämä ryhmä osoittautuu erämaasta rantautuneeksi cowboy-laumaksi, jota johtaa Tom Reese (Glenn Ford). Cowboyt ovat kuljettaneet karjaa Meksikosta Chicagoon ja elävät herroiksi niin kauan kuin rahaa riittää. Daves korostaa haastattelussaan elokuvan uskollisuutta cowboy-elämän kuvaajana, ja totta onkin, että alun komediallisuuden jälkeen tarina vakavoituu, mutta samalla elokuva on paikoin hyvinkin tyyliteltyä ja vieraannutettua.

Cowboy on kuitenkin Davesin uralla poikkeus siinä mielessä, että useimmissa lännenelokuvissaan hän käsitteli myös oman perhe- ja sukuhistoriansa taustoja. Tätä Daves painottaa jo ensimmäisen lännenelokuvansa Katkaistun nuolen kohdalla:

”Broken Arrow was a dedication to my grandfather and to my father’s family. This is all part and parcel of my heritage. I have my grandfather’s diaries and he crossed the plains twice with the Mormons, went through the ordeals of being on watch and having Indians attack and all that kind of thing. My father’s mother was born in California two months after the covered wagon arrived there and her mother, my greatgrandmother was seven months’ pregnant crossing the Sierra Nevada mountains in a covered wagon.” (Wicking 1969, 59.)

Daves korostaa historian omakohtaisuutta: kuvatut tapahtumat ovat osa hänen perintöään. Samalla hän viittaa isoisänsä päiväkirjoihin, jotka ovat antaneet mahdollisuuden nähdä 1800-luvun lopun länsi yksilön kokemusten kautta. Sitaatissa tulevat esille intiaanit ja uskonto, miehet ja naiset – kaikki relevantteja ohjaajan tuotannon näkökulmasta. Hän luonnehtii elokuvaa ”omistukseksi” menneille sukupolville ja jatkaa:

”Out of respect for these people, you can’t tell stories of the west and have it fake, and that has influenced me in my directing life, in the same sense that watching the British documentaries affected my war films. That’s the reason I think that in most of my Westerns there is a documentary feeling.” (Wicking 1969, 59.)

Daves viittaa siihen, miten hän sai vaikutteita brittiläisestä 1930-luvun dokumentista tehdessään esikoiselokuvaansa Tavoitteena Tokio, mutta on vaikea arvioida, mitä hän tarkoittaa ”dokumentaarisuuden tunnulla”, sillä kaikki 1950-luvun lännenelokuvat ovat ensisijassa näyttäviä fiktioelokuvia, joissa on myös melodramaattisia piirteitä – ajatellaanpa vaikka hänen viimeistä lännenelokuvaansa Hirsipuu (Metz 2003, 214–215). Ajatuksella on kuitenkin kaksi särmää, Davesin tietoinen herkkyys maisemalle ja niille paikoille, jotka olivat historiallisten tapahtumien näyttämönä siitäkin huolimatta, että yhdistellessään erilaisia ympäristöjä elokuva aina luo kuvitteellisen tilan, ja Davesin halu ankkuroida elokuvansa Amerikan Lännen historiallisiin käännekohtiin. Näiden molempien reittien kautta hän oli rakentamassa kulttuurista muistia.

Lopuksi

Delmer Davesin lännenelokuvat syntyivät 1950-luvulla, lajityypin kultakaudella. Ne tulkitsivat uudelleen westernin perinnettä, ja samalla ne laajensivat genren tilallista mielikuvitusta. Daves rakensi oman ikonografiansa ennen kaikkea Arizonan maisemien varaan, ja hän myös tehosti tätä työtään visuaalisella tyylillä, jolle olivat ominaisia hehkuvat värit, pitkät otokset ja nosturin avulla toteutetut kameranliikkeet.

Lännenelokuvaa on toisinaan tulkittu suhteessa poliittisen ilmaston muutoksiin. Useissa 1950-luvun westerneissä kommentoitiin ajankohtaisia kysymyksiä, ajatellaanpa vaikka Alan Dwanin ohjaamaa, mccartyismin ajan vainoharhaisuutta kommentoivaa elokuvaa Ratsastavat hurjat (Silver Lode, 1954). Daves tuntuu kuitenkin kääntävän katseensa historiaan ja sen jännitteiden tulkintaan. Hän yhdisti elokuviinsa oman sukunsa tarinoita ja tavoitteli muistillista yhteyttä Villin lännen maisemiin.

Maiseman ja muistin suhteen Davesin elokuvissa voisi tiivistää viittaamalla saksalaisen egyptologin Jan Assmannin ajatuksiin kommunikatiivisesta ja kulttuurisesta muistista. Kommunikatiivista muistia luonnehtii Assmannin mukaan välittyminen ihmiseltä ihmiselle, vuorovaikutuksen kautta. Se on perheen ja suvun sisällä siirtyvää, arkista muistia, joka ulottuu omaa elämänhistoriaa kauemmas. Kulttuurinen muisti puolestaan on medioitua ja ulottuu toisinaan kauas yksilön oman historiallisen horisontin ulottumattomiin. (Assmann 2008, 109–118.) Davesin vuoropuhelua perheensä ja sukunsa menneisyyden kanssa voi luonnehtia kommunikatiiviseksi, mutta aivan yhtä perustellusti hänen työtään lännenelokuvien ohjaajana voi pitää kulttuurisen muistin rakentamisena, jossa yksilön kokemus integroidaan laajempaan historialliseen kehykseen. Tässä yhdistämisessä maisemalla on avainrooli.

Delmer Davesin lännenelokuvat ovat rakentaneet kulttuurista muistia myös audiovisuaalisessa mielessä, muovaamalla westernin kuvastoa ja sitä tapaa, jolla lajityyppi itse muistaa omaa menneisyyttään. Tässä yhdistelmässä toteutuu Simon Schaman (1995,11) Landscape and Memory –teoksessa toteama ajatus siitä, että maisema on ”mielen tuote”, yhtä paljon muistin kuin geologisten kerrostumien synnyttämä.

Lähteet

Haastattelut

Joyner, C Courtney. 2009. The Westerners: Interviews with Actors, Directors, Writers and Producers. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co.

Wicking, Christopher. 1969. “Interview with Delmer Daves.” Screen Vol. 10 Issue 4–5: 55–66.

Aikalaiskirjallisuus

Turner, Frederick Jackson. 1976 (1893). “The Significance of the Frontier in American History.” In A Documentary History of the United States, ed. by Richard D. Heffner, 184–185. New York: New American Library.

Tutkimuskirjallisuus

Assmann, Jan. 2008. ”Communicative and Cultural Memory.” In Cultural Memory Studies: An International and Interdisciplinary Handbook, ed. by Astrid Erll & Ansgar Nünning, 109–118. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter.

Basinger, Jeanine. 2007. Anthony Mann. New and expanded edition. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.

Carmichael, Deborah A. (ed.). 2006. The Landscape of Hollywood Westerns: Ecocriticism in an American film genre. Salt Lake City: Utah University Press.

Harvey, Thomas J. 2011. Rainbow Bridge to Monument Valley: Making the Modern Old West. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Laitinen, Riitta. 1999. Lived Land: Identification with Places in Navajo Society 1800–1930. PhD thesis, Cultural History. Turku: University of Turku.

Lefebvre, Marin. 2011. “On Landscape in Narrative Cinema.” Canadian Journal of Film Studies / Revue canadienne d’études cinématographiques Vol. 20 No. 1: 61–78.

Manchel, Frank. 1998. “Cultural Confusion: Broken Arrow.” In Hollywood’s Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film, edited by Peter C. Rollins and John E. O’Connor, 91–106. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky.

Metz, Walter. 2003. ”Have You Written a Ford, Lately? Gender, Genre, and the Film Adaptations of Dorothy Johnson’s Western Literature.” Film Quarterly Vol 31 Issue 3: 209–220.

O’Connor, John E. & Rollins, Peter C. 2005. ”Introduction: The West, Westerns, and American Character.” In Hollywood’s West: The American Frontier in Film, Television & History, edited by Peter C. Rollins and John E. O’Connor, 1–34. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky.

Olsen, Brad. 2008. Sacred Places North America: 108 Destinations. Consortium of Collective Consciousness: San Francisco.

Salmi, Hannu. 1985. ”Lännenelokuvan binäärisestä analyysista.” Synteesi 1–2: 54–64.

Seeßlen, Georg & Weil, Claudius. 1979. Western-Kino. Geschichte und Mythologie des Western-Films. Grundlagen des populären Films 1. Hamburg: Verlag B. Roloff.

Schama, Simon. 1995. Landscape and Memory. London: Harper Collins.

Scott, James F. 2009. ”Altered States: Landscape, Genre, and the Burden of Guilt in Clint Eastwood’s Unforgiven.” Proceedings of the Media Ecology Assocation 10: 103–114.

Smith, Henry Nash. 1950. Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Tavernier, Bertrand. 2003. ”Ethical Romantic.” Film Comment Vol. 39 Issue 1: 42–48.

Taylor, Ken. 2008. ”Landscape and Memory: cultural landscapes, intangible values and some thoughts on Asia.” In Communities and Memories: a global perspective, Australia Memory of the World programme, online:1–6.

Americanness, apocalypse, Frontier, Mythology, television series, Western films

Jere Kyyrö
jjkyyr [a] utu.fi
M. A., MSocSc, PhD Candidate in Comparative Religion
University of Turku

Sami Panttila
s.p.panttila [a] gmail.com
M. A. in Comparative Religion
Independent Researcher

Viittaaminen / How to cite: Kyyrö, Jere, and Sami Panttila. 2015. ”The Frontier and Its Contemporary Comebacks: A Mythological Apparatus and American Self-Imagination”. WiderScreen 18 (1-2). http://widerscreen.fi/numerot/2015-1-2/frontier-contemporary-comebacks-mythological-apparatus-american-self-imagination/

Printable version (PDF)

In this article we examine the idea of the Frontier as American self-imagination^[i] from the 1940s to the 2010s, using a selection of influential classical Western films (Red River, 1948, The Gunfighter, 1950, High Noon, 1952, Shane, 1953, Rio Bravo, 1959) and a group of contemporary TV-series (Jericho, 2006–2008, Falling Skies, 2011–, Terra Nova, 2011) in which the Frontier ‘comes back’ as organized society becomes absent for one reason or another.^[ii] As in these Westerns, the Frontier, a liminal phase that falls between modern civilized society and nature (Burchell & Gray 1989, 130–131), works as an etiological apparatus that explains how America was made, in the post-apocalyptic^[iii] TV-series The Frontier is re-introduced following a break with the old social order. It becomes thus purification of American-ness and a chance of a new beginning.

Thus, Frontier myth is not used as eschatology, dealing with the end of times, but instead as an etiology, because it occurs after the end of times and is thus a break with the past. We discuss the small community that is based on free enterprise and voluntary co-operation, the focal point of the Frontier located between the nature to be appropriated, and an organized society that is ambivalent in its relationship with the small community. We examine how the Frontier, as an often recurring narrative structure, is used to make claims about ideal, authentic, clean, good American-ness and also its opposites. In this article we first look at the historical formation of this frontier myth, then its well established, prototypical forms in classical Westerns, and finally its recent uses in contemporary post-apocalyptic TV-series.

Introduction: The Frontier Myth

The American historian, Frederick Jackson Turner, wrote in his paper, The Significance of the Frontier in American History, that the ”frontier was the line of most rapid and effective Americanization”, and the producer of ”American, which was an American mind marked by restless, nervous energy” (Turner 1893). However, we are not interested in the Frontier as such or in that specific sense, but rather as a mythical apparatus, which is etiological, as it tells us the origins of the current order, moving from mythical pioneers to the modern federal state. It can be also used for post-apocalyptic and post-eschatological narratives, where the current order is reversed, and mythical times are made to come back.

Turner writes about the actual Frontier, but his writings formed a basis for the later frontier mythology. Thus, while we do not want to make essentialising assertions about American-ness, we do wish to examine the ways in which the Frontier, as an often recurring narrative structure, is used to make claims about ideal, authentic, clean, good American-ness and its opposites.^[iv]

Turner, from his own evolutionary perspective, suggested that American development included the ”familiar phenomenon of the evolution of institutions in a limited area […], the progress from primitive industrial society, without division of labor, up to manufacturing civilization […]” on the East Coast, and yet what made American development peculiar was the existence of free land. Such development along the frontier meant that American development was not unilineal, but rather the frontier conditions caused a ”return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier line, and a new development for that area”. (Turner 1893.)

Turner thought that the Frontier was a defining characteristic of American-ness, and he worried about the end of the Frontier. The images of the Frontier have held a strong presence in American culture, and thus, the genre of Western films has also had an enormous impact on these images. Richard Slotkin examines the influence of Frontier myths on American culture and politics and sees Westerns as exceptionally resourceful for studies on the Frontier myths; indeed, at the time the genre was born in the first decades of the 20^th century the American West was already deeply mythologized (mainly via dime novels and Wild West shows). The later Westerns built on these beginning, fortifying myths, codes and symbols until the historical Frontier and the Western mythical Frontier were inseparable. Over time, the most memorable images of the historical Frontier were mainly transmitted through the Western mythic landscape. (Slotkin 1995, 231–237.)

According to John G. Cawelti, the West has meant different things to different people, but all the visions ”express two general themes that, as it happens, are in fundamental conflict with each other”. The first theme, which Cawelti calls ”the West as God’s country”, is a place where a new and better society can be constructed without the mistakes of the past. In the second theme the West ”envisions a territory, where one can flee from the constraints and responsibilities of civilization, to become free, savage, and natural”. (Cawelti 2004, 143.) The concept of God’s country was originally introduced by the Puritans with their founding of the Massachusetts Bay colony.^[v] According to Cawelti, since that time, the ”hope of founding of a purified religious community in the West has been a continuous thread in [U. S.] history”. The small town embodies this same hope, and according to Cawelti, it is not a coincidence that small frontier settlements remain the most common settings for Westerns. There is an innate promise in them, namely, the promise of each developing in to a purified community, ”if only the forces of disorder and corruption can be purged”. (Cawelti 2004, 143–144.) For Cawelti, there are several counter symbols for this God’s Country, which encompass the Indians, Outlaws, land barons, Mormons, Thoreau’s Walden impulse and Las Vegas (Cawelti 2004, 145–151).

The tension between ”God’s country” and some of its counter symbols (Las Vegas, Outlaws, Land barons) is a tension between civility and overt self-interest, as articulated by the sociologist, Robert N. Bellah, in his book, The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial, 1975. Bellah focuses on this tension. In the Frontier there is no enforced law, but rather a righteousness, however, that rises from the ethics of free entrepreneurship. The concept of starting over means also starting over with the appropriation of resources, and it has two phases: First the claim making of the land, or the Lockean appropriation through work, and secondly, a redistribution among society wherein the principles of just ownership are re-negotiated.

The nostalgia for the end of the Frontier can be seen in the novels of James Fenimore Cooper and the Paintings of Thomas Cole. Cooper was worried about the vanishing of the Frontier, and Cole’s paintings describe a ”course of empire”, progressing from savagery to decadence, decay, and death (O´Connor & Rollins 2004, 2–4). Turner saw the Frontier as a safety valve for a growing nation, and was worried about its ending (Turner 1893).

The potency of the Frontier as a concept was also manifested in the New Frontier, an adaptation of Turner’s Frontier ideal and presented by President-to-be John F. Kennedy in his acceptance speech to the Democratic National Convention in 1960. The New Frontier ideology affected American domestic and foreign policies and was manifested especially in politics involving the Third World countries. The phrase, ”New Frontier”, referred to a capitalist economy enjoying continuous expansion and growth not powered any longer by free land, but by the possibilities of a modernized economy. Inspired by its survival from both the Depression and World War II, America’s postwar status was seen as consummate proof of its pioneer status among modern nations. The history of American progress was seen as an ideal model of modernization and thus the active policies concerning Third World countries were justified. (Slotkin 1995, 489–491.) Cawelti speculates that American actions in Vietnam were actually a continuation of the traditional idea of expanding westward and establishing new moral communities that then transcended the errors of old societies (Cawelti 2004, 144).

In his speech Kennedy also referred to ”uncharted areas of science and space, unsolved problems of peace and war, unconquered problems of ignorance and prejudice, unanswered questions of poverty and surplus”. He juxtaposed the security of the past with the struggles to come for democracy. (Kennedy 1960.) In Kennedy’s speech, there are connections to Cole’s ’course of empire’, and to Cawelti’s idea of the West as a place of purification. Security and plenty has caused America to lose its essence, and it now must to be found in these new frontiers.^[vi]

The mythology of the New Frontier included the concept of a ”heroic presidency”, further exemplified by Reagan and Bush Senior. The President was presented as a hero acting on behalf of the whole community, an image inspired by the heroes of the Frontier Myth. (Slotkin 1995, 497–499.) Slotkin claims that as Turner’s ”Frontier Thesis” became the basis of the dominant school of American historical interpretation it has provided an important rationale for the ideologies of both Republican progressives and Democratic liberals (Slotkin 1995, 3).

Frontier mythology was de-articulated from its Western context. Somewhat analogically, Robert B. Ray notes that the frontier mythology and other generic features of movie Westerns were transferred to other settings, such as gangster and adventure films and even musicals (Ray 1985, 70–88). The Frontier theme of the classic Westerns and the Frontier in TV-series in the 2000s and 2010s differs from the New Frontier that Kennedy offered by introducing a break between the old order and the new.

New Beginnings

Jericho (2006), Falling Skies (2011–) and Terra Nova (2011) utilize the themes of nuclear war, alien invasion and time travel, all recurrent features of the science fiction iconography. Apocalyptic scenarios are likewise common in science fiction literature and films. (Clute & Nicholls 1995, 15–19; 382–384; 881–882; 1227–1229.) According to Kimmo Ahonen, science fiction films want to depict possible worlds, and that goal distinguishes them from pure fantasy. By creating these ”what if” -type of scenarios, they communicate the threats of a real world. (Ahonen 1999, 296.)

According to Ahonen, the 1960s dystopian scenarios have replaced utopist themes in science fiction films. He points to the new kind of heroic character, a fighter who struggles to survive in a post-apocalyptic world and defends the honor of a family or a community, as exemplified by Mad Max 2 (1981). The destroyed world is used as the setting, wherein the generic conventions and iconographies of the Westerns are easily reused. For Ahonen Waterworld (1995), with its plot structure borrowed from Shane (1953) is an example of the ”New Frontier”, but in reverse form. (Ahonen 1999, 309.) In these dystopian post-apocalyptic scenarios, the Frontier has gone bad.

The Frontier in the narratives on the old West, as well as the new-born Frontier found in the more recent post-apocalyptical narratives is seen as a natural state, existing before the social contract or appearing between social contracts. Political scientist, Claire Curtis, sees post-apocalyptic novels as focusing ”on the very idea and possibility of starting over, with all the potential hope and utopian imaginings that starting over implies” (Curtis 2010, 4). Thus, the end of the world provides needed space for new beginnings. While we agree with this theme, we also would emphasize the purifying function of the apocalypse and the post-apocalyptical condition for American-ness, as instead of starting from nothing, the history that is presented becomes a model for a possible new social contract.

In the comeback narratives of the Frontier, modern society has become absent for reason or another and the established American-ness becomes something to be maintained. Next we discuss the etiological form of the Frontier myth found in classical Westerns, after which we compare that form to the post-apocalyptic version found in modern TV series. In both cases, we pay close attention to the relationships between a hero-protagonist, a small community, and the enemies of that small community, as well as the appropriation and redistribution of resources and the morality emerging from all these settings.

The Frontier of Western films

The 1940s and 1950s are considered the greatest years of the Hollywood Westerns (Buscombe & Pearson 1998, 1–3) and we focus our interest here on certain classic Western films from those two decades. As a genre, the Western films have been divided into several sub-genres at various times, but those divisions are not the center of this particular analysis. Along with their retelling and reforming of the Frontier Myth, Western films have reflected on social and cultural concerns of their own (production) time in many ways. Main lines at the period of our perception are reflections on the loss of individual independence and America’s postwar adjustment in the 1940s that then made way to the Cold War issues that came into sharp focus in the 1950s. (O’Connor & Rollins 2005, 23; McDonough 2005, 111–112.)

John G. Cawelti sees the mythic Western hero as the outcome of a long evolution that includes elements from real historical settlers, hunters and cowboys, and Wild West legends as well as traits drawn from archetypal mythical heroes reformed through the Puritan imagination. For Cawelti, it is essential that a classic Western hero has a certain reluctance to become involved in violent action, a strong personal code of morality and justice, and a desire for individual privacy as this hero often prefers riding away to bragging about his escapades. (Cawelti 2004, 146–147, 178–185.)

These Western film heroes can be distinguishable into several categories. Lonely riders and cowboys are differentiated from more direct advocates of law and delivering legal justice like sheriffs and cavalrymen. Despite the differences between these categories, it is interesting to examine what is common for these hero types. The defining element of the Western film hero seems to be that he defends individual farmers and/or small communities against deprivers. Kathleen A. McDonough notes that in many cases, this kind of delivered benefit to the community is only secondary; the prime motive for the hero’s actions is personal revenge (McDonough 2005, 101). So at the same time as the hero’s individualism is praised, he still becomes the defender of community.

Lonely rider Shane in George Stevens’ Shane (1953) is a classic example of the Western film hero. He defends small individual farmers’ rights against the film’s villain, Rufus Ryker, a cattle baron who wants to maintain his monopoly over almost anything economic seen in the film. Shane’s motives and his willingness to violent action grow, as he becomes more personally and emotionally attached to the individual farmer Joe Starrett, his wife, and child. Shane is continuously presented as a righteous and just man, but for that type of characters to turn to action, he needs s strong personal motives as well. In the end, Shane’s personal attachment combined with the community’s benefit ultimately leads to peace in the rangeland via a violent showdown. Robert B. Ray sees the story of Shane as a typical tale that reinforces the narrative of a civilization’s dependence on its individual heroes (Ray 1985, 73).

A more deviant presentation in the relations between hero and community can be found in Henry King’s The Gunfighter (1950). The film tells the tale of Jimmy Ringo, a famous gunfighter, who tries to reform and start a peaceful life. To this point, the story is quite usual and compares closely to many of the western classics, such as Shane or John Ford’s My Darling Clementine (1946). In The Gunfighter, however, it becomes quickly clear that the threat to the community is caused by Ringo himself. There are vengeance and glory seekers disrupting the peace of the community that Ringo visits in the film, but none of these are presented as main villain. It is the gunfighter himself, or more clearly his violent past that is the villain.

Ringo’s former gunslinger companion, Mark Strett, and Ringo’s wife, Peggy Walsh, have previously successfully blended into this community. They try to help Ringo, but they are not ready to accept him permanently in a community where he has produced such anxiety. Toward the end of the film, it becomes more and more clear that this kind of hero cannot solve the community’s problems in the traditional way as they don’t appreciate his personal intentions of settling down. In the conclusion, Ringo is shot, and indeed, he seems to understand it was inevitable.

Alongside this unconventional main hero are some important and strong supporting roles that appear in The Gunfighter. Mark Strett and Peggy Walsh have successfully become part of the community and attained positions that strengthen it, Strett is Marshal, and Walsh is the town school teacher. Their decisions are appreciated, but even more are the decisions of a briefly appearing Tommy, who used to be a ”rounder” and has now found a woman and started his own individual farm.

As Tommy proudly tells Ringo about all the work it takes to succeed in ranching, that goal is presented also as Ringo’s dream and seems as the film moves forward to be the right way to do things. In this narrative even the Marshal’s and the school teacher’s positions are not seen as being as valued as those of small individual farmers and their families. One point that impacts this order of appreciation is that neither Strett nor Walsh has a real family although Walsh has had a son, Jimmie, with Ringo. This point is further strengthened at the very end of the film when there is a small hint that maybe Strett, Walsh, and Jimmie could become a family as they are seen together at Ringo’s funeral.

Land and Resources

In both of the films examined above, Shane and The Gunfighter, the questions asked about successful and satisfactory living are closely related to landowning and farming. This is a theme that applies to the Frontier of Western films generally. Historically, the possibility of landowning was a major motivation for Western migration, especially after passage of the Homestead Act of 1862.^[vii] However it is still notable that other forms of industry (most notably mining) are rarely dealt with in these films despite their great influence on the historical West (Burchell & Gray 1989, 133–136). They are mythically less prominent. Turner (1893) highlights the significance of ”free land” in his Frontier Myth, and the Western films also set forth questions about landowning and individual farmers rights as the very center of many Frontier conflicts.

The fair distribution of land and resources, a crucial question in the Frontier of Western films, is further approached in Howard Hawks’s Red River (1948). Red River is a film about conquering the frontier and founding an empire, a cattle ranch. The film can also be viewed as an allegory about the political and economic problems of nation-building (Springer 2005, 117–119). We see the main character Thomas Dunson taking his acres from Texas although the Mexican Don Diego has already claimed the whole area for at least six hundred kilometers to the south. Dunson’s use of violence is then justified in simple ways, as Dunson’s sidekick Groot says: “That’s too much land for one man. Why it ain’t decent”. This vague concept of ‘decency’ is an interesting one. In the Westerns dealing the era of conquering the West, it can justify overtaking of quite large areas.

However, in the narratives of more progressed times, the theme constantly takes the side of small individual farmers against large ranchers and cattle barons. It seems that the basis of this viewpoint is a question of efficiency. In Red River, the rancher Dunson uses the land more efficiently than Don Diego has. In the already mentioned Shane the small farmers build their farms on the land of the cattle baron Rufus Ryker. The justification of their farming is explained as being more efficient than Ryker’s old ways. Thus, the concept of utilization and free entrepreneurship demand that Ryker must back down. In William Wyler’s The Big Country (1958) the same questions are approached in the struggle over an important water source on the prairie. The hero’s utilitarian solution is the most efficient use of lands resources. He ensures peace by guaranteeing everyone access to the water.

The American philosopher, Robert B. Pippin, sees the founding phase as ethically a quite problematic concept because of its violent nature (Pippin 2010, 29–36). The stories of how land and resources are redistributed from those who took them violently for their own advantage to more efficient, equal and democratic utilization is an attempt to deal with the problems created by the founding itself. The process might again become violent, but that violence is seen now as more righteous. This narrative theme works, therefore, as a justification of contemporary conditions. The problems of conquering the land are less problematized in many Western films that focus on conflicts between the cavalry and Indians. John Ford’s influential ”cavalry trilogy”; Fort Apache (1948), She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949) and Rio Grande (1950) tells a story wherein the Indians represent a wild threat to a civilized community and their conquering is justified as the progress of civilization in the spirit of a Manifest Destiny.^[viii]

The End of the Hero and Nostalgia for Lost Frontier

For a final view of the Frontier in Western films, we visit the hero’s relationship to community again and bring the aspect of nostalgia into the discussion. Fred Zinneman’s High Noon (1952) is considered a controversial Western film so it is worthwhile to examine alongside its counterpart Howard Hawks’s Rio Bravo (1959). Matthew J. Costello points to High Noon, based on its reception,^[ix] as a landmark of self-conscious Westerns that comment on the political culture of the Cold War, a sub-genre often referred as law-and-order Westerns. Typically these Westerns address the role of individual responsibility and power in a community through the tale of a lone lawman. (Costello 2005, 175.) Rio Bravo is part of this continuity (Slotkin 1992, 402–403) although Costello sees the theme as ideologically less charged than the typical law-and-order Westerns do (Costello 2005, 195).

In High Noon, the newlywed marshal Will Kane’s plans of retirement are delayed as a band of outlaws are planning to take revenge on him. We follow a story in which members of the community that Kane used to protect refuse to stand with him against his enemies. Some, like Kane’s new wife, the Quaker Amy Fowler Kane, wants Will Kane just to escape as all the others in town are so nonchalant about his destiny. In the finale, Kane defeats the outlaws with a little help from Amy, who abandons her religious views to protect her husband. After that scene, Kane throws his Marshal’s star irreverently to the ground in front of the people suddenly have gathered and leaves town with his wife.

Rio Bravo is often referred as Director Howard Hawks’s and lead John Wayne’s version of High Noon although the straight intentionality of this explanation is not clear (Slotkin 1992, 391; Costello 2005, 195.), and its themes do come close to those in Zinneman’s film. In Rio Bravo, Sheriff John T. Chance wants Joe Burdette brought to justice for murder, and this goal sets him against Joe’s brother, the rancher Nathan Burdette. The Burdettes keep the small town in their grip with both violence and money. The situation is desperate, but in Rio Bravo, Chance is not left alone. He doesn’t beg for help, as he doesn’t want to put people in danger, and besides his two deputies, he still gets help from many directions. This more positive view of the community and its morality, when compared to that found in High Noon, is strongly highlighted in the film’s end. Chance remains sheriff and gives up his emphasized independency when he confesses his feelings to an outsider woman, Feathers, and persuades her to stay with him. Through this rendering both become even more engaged with the community.

In both High Noon and Rio Bravo, the heroes have a different kind of relationship with their community, but both heroes do end up protecting it. Will Kane’s reasons are more personal, and finally he despises the whole community he has helped. John T. Chance’s actions accentuate a hero’s unselfish seek of righteousness and justice; his personal motives derive from his will to protect the law and his community. That’s why he is not willing to let Joe Burdette loose simply to avoid more conflict. Both heroes are representatives of the law, so there is no strong reluctance by either character to use violence when needed to protect the community.

Turner was worried about the end of the Frontier (Turner 1893). In many Western films the corruption and destruction of the Frontier seemed to be inevitable. The Frontier existed between a wild nature and modern civilization and both are seen as inferior to the Frontier. The nostalgic aspect comes from an appreciation of the hard work, strong men, and interactions between man and nature that were all associated with the conquering of the West. Heroes represented these features and were often seen as men of the past. In the future order with its comforts offered by organized society, men would eventually become both lazy and spiritless. The new threat, corruption from the inside, was unfightable. Shane in Shane rides away, High Noon’s Will Kane leaves with spite for his community, and The Gunfighter’s Jimmy Ringo came from the wrong place in the beginning. The alternative to the hero’s departure is shown in Rio Bravo where John T. Chance becomes even more committed to his community. This commitment required his giving up a personal important mythical feature, total independency, and he does so through commitment to a woman. All in all, these Western heroes become unnecessary as there is no longer a need for strong righteous individuals who will fight for justice in a settled, civilized world.

In summary, it can be said that in the Frontier of the Western films heroes were the protectors of small new communities. John G. Cawelti saw the hope of having a pure community embodied in the small town (Cawelti 2004, 150–151) and it is the purification of those Frontier communities that becomes the main narrative of these Westerns. Often the themes concerning the redistribution of the land and its resources are central to this purification. This focus can also be seen as a justification for the conditions of film production time and the praise of free entrepreneurship. Along with their small communities, the roles of small individual farmers and families are highlighted in these films.

In the Frontier the tension between civility and self-interest is an essential element and solved through the actions of a hero whose personal motives combine with the community benefit. The community’s sense of righteousness cannot be trusted in an unstable Frontier,^[x] and in a praise of individualism, it becomes the hero who stabilizes the justice. When this goal is done, the hero becomes unnecessary and must fade. In the iconic end scene of Shane where we see Shane riding away into the sunset, highlighted as but a shadow in the distance. The alternative is the hero’s infiltration into the community through changes in the hero’s character and actions. The modern community after the Frontier has moved onwards and is not a place for strong individuals and thus it leads to the corruption of man as the Frontier dissipates.

The Comeback of The Frontier

The Frontier is that ever transitional state that exists in between nature and organized society. An obvious example of the connections between classical and futuristic Frontier narratives is The Postman (1997), directed and starred in by Kevin Costner, where a clear allegory is offered for the post-apocalyptic reconstruction of society by connecting scattered communities to the mail and similar efforts by the U. S. Post Office in the old frontier west now renewed by a modern apocalypse. That connection might be less obvious in such TV-series as Terra Nova, but we argue, that clear similarities do exist, the most important of which is focusing on a small community, that is trying to make a living in a situation where organized society is now absent (cf. Ahonen 1999, 309).

In Jericho (2006–2008) the small town loses contact with organized society, when atomic bombs explode on the horizon. Later it is revealed that there are two competing U. S. governments trying to claim power, but one is a false government, as it soon becomes evident that it has connections to the nuclear attack and is under the control of a private corporation. In Jericho, the Frontier is used as a tool to examine American-ness in during the War on Terror. The society that must be purified is a corrupt federal state that has connections to monopolistic corporations. In the series, the people of the town of Jericho start a rebellion against the false government, which is then compared to the American War of Independence and the Civil War.

In Falling Skies (2011–) the reason for the collapse of society is an alien invasion, and the Frontier thus becomes a place for resistance. The small community is on the move and tries to evade the attacks of the aliens. The men and some of the women in the community create a military resistance unit that tries to fight the invaders, who have occupied the big cities and try to enslave the children by using a special harness. The remaining human communities become organized as militia units, under a military leadership. The aliens are the deprivers, and the humans are the resource to be appropriated. In Falling Skies, the historical allegories also derive from the War of Independence. The name of the community is ”Second Massachusetts”, the name of a regiment in the Continental Army.

In Terra Nova (2011) the earth in 2149 is overpopulated. A rift in space time allows people to travel back in time 85 million years and do one-way colonization of the past earth. It is seen as a solution to overpopulation (and also a clear allegory for the European migration to America). However, a corporation exists that plans to create a way to take resources to earth in year 2149. The background for Terra Nova is a coming eco-catastrophe, caused by the excessive self-interest of big corporations, who are willing to consume the resources of the past earth as the resources of the present become depleted.

In all these cases, American-ness becomes something that a small community has to maintain. The common denominator for these TV shows is the destruction of organized society and the process of organizing a new society (emphasized in Terra Nova) or maintaining at least some the old organization and its values (both Falling Skies and Jericho). The small community is the place where the struggle occurs and the purification, and marks the quest to maintain the freedom of individuals from oppressors.

Living Together As a Small Community

As in the classical Westerns, the old order the founders support is challenged by the small community, while in the comebacks the issue is usually a maintenance of the old order of the organized society that has been lost, the struggle against outside threats (aliens, zombies, false Americans), and a purification. That is a struggle against inner threats – or finding a way to live the right way as a small community. This theme is reflected specifically in Jericho.

An inhabitant of the town, Stanley Richmond, owns a farm that provides the city with corn. One day he notices that his crops are threatened by vermin. He asks the town’s shopkeeper, Gracie Leigh, the cost of insecticide, who asks for half of the crops in return. Stanley does not take the deal. He asks for help from the town’s Mayor, Johnston Green, who wants Stanley to share the crops with the townspeople. This is not acceptable to Stanley either. Finally Stanley’s girl friend, Mimi Clark (who was originally a tax collector sent to investigate Stanley’s tax issues), organizes the theft of the insecticide without Stanley knowing about it. Stanley gets caught, and returns the insecticide to Gracie. Finally, the townspeople come voluntarily and without any demands to help Stanley with the harvest, Gracie gives the insecticide to Stanley, and the crops are collected before they are consumed by the vermin. A sense of trust is thus created between the townspeople, but without anybody’s right of ownership being questioned. In Jericho, the balance between civility and self-interest means voluntarily co-operating for common goals, not questioning anybody’s right to privileged ownership, and not demanding excessive prices during times of hardship.

In both Terra Nova and Jericho, big corporations are seen as threatening the small community and its rights. In Jericho, the Jennings & Rall Corporation tries to claim supplies from the town with a government mandate, using its sub-company Ravenwood, which specializes in security services. However, the very demand of the fruits of the town’s private enterprise reveals the company does not have any such mandate, and the townspeople start their resistance.

The corporations here can be compared to the Founders who had only self-interest, but not civility. In Falling Skies, the equivalent are the aliens who are seeking to enslave all humans with the help of bio-engineered harnesses that will control the nervous systems of the enslaved and make them feel connected to the community of aliens. A small community forms the basis of the resistance against such overt self-interest. The corporations and aliens have similarities to the old world of the East, which is clearly allegorized in these series.

Heroes and The Right Way

As in the classical Westerns, it is the hero’s inner quest for righteousness that guards community justice, and similarities can be found in the comebacks too. Both in Jericho and Terra Nova, the male protagonist gets a second chance as the old social order becomes lost. In Jericho, the ideal family’s black sheep, Jake Green, returns to his hometown just when the bombs explode. He tries to stay on the right path. In Terra Nova, Jim Shannon tries to find his place in the newly formed frontier society, and as he demonstrates his skills, he is nominated as sheriff. Jack and Tom are outsiders, but their stories are about finding one’s place in a community. There is a similarity in their stories to the stories of the heroes in the Westerns, who give up their mythical qualities when they join the community they have helped.

In both cases, the crime committed by the protagonists is not really a crime. Jake was falsely accused of manslaughter, which led him to acting in bad ways, Jim’s crime was having a third child, forbidden by the authoritarian government, and trying to hide her existence. The real criminal of course is the government, and its disappearance gives the protagonist the chance to start over.

In Falling Skies, the protagonist Tom Mason is a former history teacher who inspires the community with stories from the war of independence. Historical allegories from the War of Independence, the Civil War and World War II are very prominent in Jericho. Settlement of the past earth in Terra Nova is a very clear allegory for the colonization of America, and the corporation from the year 2149 that is trying to exploit the resources is seen as analogous to the British colonial administration. In Jericho, Emily Sullivan, who is a teacher, notices how the false government sponsored by Jennings & Rall tries to rewrite history. Their reason for the nuclear attack and the collapse of United States is a too soft foreign policy. The importance of history for coming social organization is acknowledged.

Often the models for the right protagonist’s choices are found in the American (military) history. One good example is the Rangers. The term of course has many references– park ranger, Texas Rangers, Roger’s Rangers in the War of Independence, the elite infantry unit in WWII and the modern U.S. military, and also the wilderness-wandering rangers found in fantasy literature. In Jericho the inhabitants of the town form their own rangers to defend their town against outside threats. They patrol the outskirts. The rangers protect the citizens, their livelihoods, and the fruits of their work, or in other words, private property. A connection to American military history is created, as it is revealed that the protagonist Jake, who leads the Jericho rangers, had a grandfather and father who were Army rangers in WWII and the Vietnam War.

In a stressful situation, Jake sees his grandfather in a vision. He tells Jake to start a rebellion against the false government. This is a way of redeeming his place in the father-son-continuation and an accepted member of the small-community-as-ideal-America. This example shows the difference between the non-historical heroes of the old Westerns and the new heroes who struggle to redeem their places in the society. These historical models teach about the original heroism and how the good society was once made.

In Falling Skies and Terra Nova the community is organized in a military fashion, and power is centralized and held by military leaders and as in Jericho, leadership is assigned to the mayor, who is chosen by the townspeople. In all three series, there is a tension between the protagonist’s charismatic or exemplary leadership and the community’s leader’s more or less legalistic or authoritarian leadership. The leadership in all cases is reserved for men only. Through leadership, tension of individual freedom and the community’s power over individual is closely examined. Leadership is something that the small community needs, but there is constant negotiation going on about the limits of that power. There are also connections made to the idea of a heroic Presidency, where the leader stands for the whole community (Slotkin 1995, 497–499).

Contrary to the classical Westerns, in all three series, the male protagonists and their family relations are the focus. In Jericho, Jake’s relationship with his mother, father, grandfather and girlfriend are central, as the emphasis in the grandfather-father-son continuum. In the two other series, the protagonists are fathers themselves. In Falling Skies the family is a blended one, as Tom and the community’s doctor, Anne Glass, get together after both learn their spouses are dead. Focusing on the family can be explained by the continuity the family creates. It is a narrative vehicle likely required by the serial format, but the way the family is represented also exemplifies the family values that emphasize the nuclear family with a ”breadwinner husband, full-time mother and homemaker, and their dependent children” (Fogel 2012, 10.) Jennifer M. Fogel writes, that ”the most successful images of family continue to be bound to a performance of familialism that reaffirms the values deeply rooted in the nuclear family” (Fogel 2012, 289).

Even though women’s agency is not limited to the household (in all three series there are female characters, who take part in combat, for example), as spouse of the male heroes women seem to occupy roles that do not require leaving the community too often (Jericho’s Emily Sullivan is a teacher, Terra Nova’s Elisabeth Shannon and Falling Skies’ Anne Glass are doctors). It is also noteworthy that the struggles outside these families rarely affect their family relations. The children are in danger of straying, and the father-hero deals with such issues, and the wife’s supportive role is not questioned.

The Frontier Now and Then

We locate the Frontier in that location where organized society is absent and a small community is struggling for its survival. There are two striking differences between the classical Westerns and the contemporary post-apocalyptic TV-series of the 2000s and the 2010s. The first is the hero’s relationship with the small community and familialism; the second difference is the role of history as a model for the right way of living in a small community.

For Kathleen A. McDonough, the Western hero’s benefit to the community is only secondary to hero’s motive for actions of personal revenge (McDonough 2005, 101); in the TV series the hero’s story is about redeeming his place in the community. To adapt to the small community the contemporary frontier hero does not have to give away any of his mythical features, but instead he must show that the sins committed during the time of the old order will not affect his adaptation to the new society. In Terra Nova, Jim’s crime is having a third child; in Jericho, Jake is falsely accused of manslaughter. In Falling Skies, however, Tom does not have a past that must be redeemed; he is already an exemplary leader.

In Jericho and Falling Skies, history shows the way to right conduct. Such a model is not present in the classical Westerns, except as an idea about the Frontier; in the post-apocalyptic narratives history resurfaces in one way or another. In the post-apocalyptic scenarios the Frontier state reminds one of a Hobbesian state of war, and the new social contract is seen as an improvement to this condition. However, it is not a start from nothing, as the new contract is based on historical models that clearly demonstrate what is worth saving from the established American-ness (cf. Curtis 2010). The return of the Frontier thus works as purification – a filter that lets the best parts of the past come through and be part of the new order.

As the classical Westerns reflected on the loss of an individual’s independence, the post-apocalyptic scenarios of the 2000s and 2010s seem to be more interested in family values and finding a way to live in a small community. The object of such nostalgia is the lost small community. The small community is the keeper of the real American-ness, and it is threatened by the overt self-interest of the big corporations that also threaten the freedom those living in these small communities. However, the Frontier can also become a dystopic critique, as for example, in the contemporary film Winter’s Bone (2010) directed by Debra Granik. Here organized society is absent, and offers no help to the girl who is determined to learn her criminal father’s murderer, and neither does the small community, which protects these murderers.

This case is somewhat similar to High Noon (1952) where Marshal Will Kane confronts his enemies alone when his trusted small community turns its back on him. In this case, the individual is the protector of ideal values, as the small community has lost its right way. The idealized status of the small community is turned upside down, while individual heroism is preserved. Still, what is a hero without a community? Through Frontier American-ness, the idealized American community and the American dream continue to be celebrated, but also criticized by revealing its shadowy darker side.

The ways that organized society ends in the three TV series reflect the fears of the 2000s and 2010s (terrorism, eco-catastrophe, and government corrupted by corporate interests), but the end is also a chance for a new start. What is similar in the Frontiers of the classical Westerns and post-apocalyptic start-overs is the idea of decency as its relationship to resources. Overt self-interest is bad, but the individual right to property is never questioned.

References

All links verified 22.4.2015.

Web pages

The Homestead Act of 1862. http://www.nps.gov/home/learn/historyculture/upload/mw,pdf,homestead%20act,txt.pdf.

Imdb, 2015. “Highest Rated Western Feature Films With At Least 1,000 Votes.” Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/search/title?genres=western&title_type=feature&num_votes=1000%2C&sort=user_rating%2Cdesc.

TV Guide, 29 June 2007. TV Guide Names the Top Cult Shows Ever.” http://www.tvguide.com/news/top-cult-shows-40239/.

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BBC News, 6 March 2012. Spielberg drama Terra Nova is cancelled by Fox.” Entertainment & Arts. http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-17269054.

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Albanese, Catherine. 2013. America: Religions and Religion. Fifth Edition. Boston: Wadsworth.

Barthes, Roland. 1972. Mythologies. Annette Lavers (trans.). New York: Wang and Hill.

Bellah, Robert N., 1992 [1975]. The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial. Second Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Burchell, R. A. & R. J. Gray, 1989. “The Frontier West.” In Introduction to American Studies. Second Edition, edited by Malcolm Bradbury & Howard Temperley. London and New York: Longman, 130–156.

Buscombe Edward & Roberta E. Pearson, 1998. “Introduction.” In Back In the Saddle Again: New Essays on the Western, edited by Edward Buscombe & Roberta E. Pearson. London: British Film Institute, 1–7.

Cawelti, John G., 2004. Mystery, Violence, and Popular Culture. Essays by John G. Cawelti. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press.

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Costello, Matthew J., 2005. “Rewriting High Noon: Transformations in American Popular Political Culture During the Cold War, 1952–1968.” In Hollywood’s West. The American Frontier in Film, Television, and History, edited by Peter C. Rollins & John E. O’Connor. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 175–197.

Curtis, Claire P., 2010. Postapocalyptic Fiction and The Social Contract. We’ll not go Home Again. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books.

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Kennedy, John F., 15 July 1960. Democratic National Convention Nomination Acceptance Address. The New Frontier”. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfk1960dnc.htm. 

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McDonough, Kathleen A., 2005. “Wee Willie Winkie Goes West: The Influence of the British Empire Genre on Ford’s Cavalry Trilogy.” In Hollywood’s West. The American Frontier in Film, Television, and History, edited by Peter C. Rollins & John E. O’Connor. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 99–114.

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Notes

^[i] This article is based on a paper given at the John Morton Centre Conference “Bridging North America: Connections and Divides”, Turku 29 August 2014. We would like to thank the Editorial Staff of WiderScreen and the two anonymous referees for their very useful comments.

^[ii] The selection of 1940s–1950s classical American Westerns is based on the Imdb list of 50 best Western films, which is further based on user reviews (Imdb 2014). Themes that are exemplified by the films presented in this article can be found in the other films as well. The three TV series were chosen because they exemplify similar themes. Falling Skies is running for the fifth and last season, and Terra Nova was cancelled after its first season (BBC News 2012). Jericho was cancelled after its first season, but a fan campaign convinced the network to continue it (TV Guide 2007). It was cancelled again after its second season.

^[iii] Apocalypse, from gr. ἀπο-κάλυψις, uncovering, revelation; etiology, from gr. αἰτί-α, responsibility, guilt, blame, credit, expostulation; eschatology, from gr. ἔσχατον, for the last time, and finally, best of all, at the latest (See Liddell & Scott 2010, 24, 99, 319).

We use the term ‘post-apocalyptic’ in a broad sense, namely, to refer to such scenarios where the organized society and technological infrastructure provided by it have become absent due to human actions or external factors. In Terra Nova, the organized society is absent because the people have time travelled to the past, but the reason for that time travel is a natural disaster and poor living conditions. The end of times works also as a prerequisite for the absence of organized society in Terra Nova.

As Maria Manuel Lisboa points out, apocalyptical scenarios are often ‘near misses’, as they are ‘near-universal annihlation[s] with just enough life left intact (at least one human being of each sex, sufficient land, water, and resources) to guarantee a reasonable likelihood of a new beginning’. (Lisboa 2011, xxv).

^[iv] We do not use ‘myth’ to refer to transcultural and transhistorical Jungian or Campbellian myths, like John G. Cawelti (2004) does, but like Robert B. Ray (1985, 15) we do wish to emphasize the Barthesian view on myth as a naturalization of the contingent.

To Roland Barthes, myths are not defined by the objects of their messages, but by the way they utter their messages. Myths can be almost anything that can make the historical, or contingent, appear as natural or as necessary. (Barthes 1972, 117, 142.) The Frontier as a mythical narrative technique would then be a way of naturalizing present American-ness by telling us how the old order has been reversed (etiology), or how the times will end (eschatology).

Scholar of religion, Russell T. McCutcheon, points out that myths are entangled with social formation, “as a rhetorical device in social construction and maintenance [myth] makes this rather than that social identity possible” (McCutcheon 2000, 200). Building on Bronislaw Malinowski’s theories, he states that ‘myth is a vehicle whereby any of a variety of possible social charters is rendered exemplary, authoritative, singular, unique, as something that cannot be imagined differently’ (McCutcheon 2000, 200). McCutcheon points us toward looking at identity construction in different social contexts and also the limits in the ways of using The Frontier.

Building on Barthes and McCutcheon, we see myths not as a political substrata for ideology, but as a naturalization of contingent (also by repeating images and narrative structures that are identifiable as ‘archetypal’), and we see them as inherently both political and ideological. They limit the field of imagination and its possibilities. Thus, the study of myths is the studying of what-goes-without-saying and the field of possibilities for imagining America.

^[v] Sociologist of religion, Catherine Albanese, sees that Puritanism has had very large impact on American religion and culture. Its central features are the idea of the covenant and millenialism – waiting for the second coming of Jesus, the end of times, and the chance of starting over (Albanese 2013, 94–95, 273–300).

^[vi] The mythology of the New Frontier can be found also in the introductory speech of the original Star Trek series (1966–69), uttered by William Shatner: ‘Space: The final frontier. These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise. Its five-year mission: to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before.’

^[vii] The Homestead Act of 1862, signed by President Abraham Lincoln and the first of several Homestead Acts, enabled landowning to other than wealthy people in the Western territories of United States (The Homestead Act of 1862).

^[viii] Ford’s trilogy is heavily influenced by the British pre-war empire genre, and thus besides reflecting on the dreams of America’s postwar adjustment, it also portrays many Imperialist ideals. Besides seeing Indians as a wild threat, the first two parts of the trilogy also illustrate them as honorable fighters and to some extent as victims. (McDonough 2005, 111–113; Slotkin 1995, 334–336.)

^[ix] High Noon was a big commercial and critical success. Still, it was somewhat criticized because of its pessimistic views of community and it’s moral. Part of this criticism may have stemmed from the blacklisting of the film’s screenwriter, Carl Foreman. (Slotkin 1992, 391; Costello 2005, 175.)

^[x] Community’s misguided sense of justice is perhaps most frankly depicted in William A. Wellman’s The Ox-Bow Incident (1943) where a posse ends up lynching three innocent men.